Tactile Town, 3-D O and M Kit

TEACHER'S GUIDEBOOK

Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit

by
Karen J. Poppe

APH Logo

American Printing House for the Blind, Inc.
1839 Frankfort Avenue
Mailing Address: P.O. Box 6085
Louisville, KY 40206-0085
Phone: 502-895-2405
Toll Free: 800-223-1839
Fax: 502-899-2274
E-mail: info@aph.org
Website: www.aph.org

Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit

Poppe, Karen J., APH Tactile Graphics Project Leader

Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit [Catalog No. 1-03135-00]
Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit: Teacher's Guidebook (Large Print) [Catalog No. 7-03135-00]
Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit: Teacher's Guidebook (Braille) [Catalog No. 5-03135-00]

Copyright © 2010, American Printing House for the Blind
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America

This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, unless noted on specific pages. For information regarding permissions, write to the American Printing House for the Blind, Resource Services, 1839 Frankfort Avenue, Louisville, KY 40206-0085.

In keeping with our philosophy to provide access to information for people who are blind and visually impaired, the American Printing House for the Blind provides this book in large print, braille, and electronic versions.

PROJECT STAFF

Karen J. Poppe
APH Tactile Graphics Project Leader
Author/Product Developer

Christina J. Smerz
Project Assistant

Tom Poppe
Pattern/Model Maker
Designer of 3-D and 2-D Manipulatives

Monica Vaught
Project Editor

Terri Gilmore
Graphic Designer
Front Cover/Box Label Design

Bisig Impact Group
Text Page Layout and Photos

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The project leader would like to thank the following Teachers of the Visually Impaired and Orientation and Mobility Specialists who contributed their time, knowledge, and creativity to the field evaluation of Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit.

Jill Brown, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Texas
Jeannie Camacho, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Hawaii
Amy Downard, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Hawaii
Renee Farrell, Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Kentucky
Michelle Garrett, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Texas
Debra E. Jolly, Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Ohio
Lori Klein, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Minnesota
Judy Morris, Orientation and Mobility Instructor, Tennessee
Felicia Nichols, Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Michigan
Mary Pawlowski, Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Kentucky
Lydia Peterson, Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Minnesota
Craig Phillips, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Kansas
Anne Roeth, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Certified Orientation and Mobility Instructor, California
Christopher Tabb, Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Connecticut
Connie Telschow, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Minnesota
Robin Theryoung, Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, Colorado

Special thanks, too, to the 114 students who were involved in the field testing of this product.

INTRODUCTION

Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit provides an interactive, three-dimensional model to teach spatial concepts and environmental layouts to young children with visual impairments and blindness. As compared to typical two-dimensional tactile diagrams and instructional tools, Tactile Town has the following advantages:

Tactile Town primarily assists in the development of cognitive mapping-helping students perceive and organize their physical environment specific to concepts such as street layouts, intersections, route patterns, city block arrangements, and so forth. It encourages active participation and interaction with displayed map layouts so that concepts and skills, not conveniently accessed through real-life exploration, can be learned and practiced.

Tactile Town also alleviates the chore many orientation and mobility specialists and teachers of the visually impaired assume in creating maps, models, and other instructional tools for their students. By providing a variety of components (buildings, pedestrians, grassy areas, cars, etc.) that can be easily customized and extended, Tactile Town is an ideal starter kit for instruction and reinforcement of mapping skills and concepts.

Tactile Town is designed to be inviting to both tactile and visual learners, with careful attention given to the incorporation of contrasting colors, textures, and recognizable features. For example:

A complete list of the components included in Tactile Town is provided on pages 13-28.

Triangle "CAUTION" symbol.  CAUTION: Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit should NOT serve as a substitute for real community travel and exposure. Interpreting tactile maps (in any form) without safety skills, mobility techniques, and the specialized training offered by a Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist (COMS) is not sufficient for the student's safe and skillful navigation within an authentic environment.  
  
Triangle "WARNING" symbol.  WARNING: CHOKING HAZARD-Small Parts: Tactile Town includes small parts that are not intended for children ages 5 and under without adult supervision. 


TACTILE TOWN COMPONENTS

GREEN GRASSY AREAS 
Item  Description  Quantity  Application
of Velcoins 
Note: A total of 150 black hook Velcoins are provided for application to the back of the green grassy areas. Recommended Velcoin quantity and placement per piece are listed below. A few extra Velcoins are provided.  
1  Cul-de-sac
(11" square with keyhole cutout) 
Photo of green cul-de-sac piece included in Tactile Town.  16 Velcoins (space about 2 inches apart around periphery of part) 
2  Rectangle "Blocks" with rounded corners
(6-1/2" x 3-3/8") 
Photo of green rectangle blocks with rounded corners included in Tactile Town.  4 Velcoins per rectangle (one in each corner) 
3  Rectangle "Blocks" with square corners
(6-1/2" x 3-3/8") 
Photo of green rectangle blocks with square corners included in Tactile Town.  4 Velcoins per rectangle (one in each corner) 
4  Triangles  Photo of green triangle pieces included in Tactile Town.  3 Velcoins per piece (one in each corner) 
5  Large Circle
(3-5/8" diameter) 
Photo of large green circle included in Tactile Town.  2 Velcoins 
6  Small Circle
(2-1/2" diameter) 
Photo of small green circle included in Tactile Town.  2 Velcoins 
7  Wedges
Note: Helpful for building Y-intersections 
Photo of pairs of green wedges included in Tactile Town.  2 pairs of mirrored opposites  4 Velcoins per piece (one in each corner) 
8  Squares
(2" x 2") 
Photo of green squares included in Tactile Town.  2 Velcoins per piece 
9  Long Narrow Strips
(13" x 2") 
Photo of long narrow green strips included in Tactile Town.  4 Velcoins per piece 
10  Short Narrow Strips
(6-3/4" x 2") 
Photo of short narrow green strips included in Tactile Town.  3 Velcoins per piece 
11  Roundabout Corners  Photo of green roundabout corners included in Tactile Town.  3 Velcoins per piece 
3-D MANIPULATIVES 
Item  Description  Quantity  Application
of Velcoins 
1  Large Houses
(all red, each with a different roof type-smooth, bumpy, tin, shingled) 
Photo of large house included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each house. 
2  Small Houses
(blue, white, red and yellow; each color is available in two roof types-bumpy and smooth) 
Photo of small house included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each house. 
3  Curved-Topped Buildings
(all yellow-2 have a bumpy roof and 2 have a smooth roof) 
Photo of curved-topped building included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each building. 
4  Flat-Topped Buildings
(all blue-2 have a bumpy roof and 2 have a smooth roof) 
Photo of flat-topped building included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each building. 
5  Cars
(4 orange with smooth tops and 4 yellow with bumpy tops)

Note: Consider supplementing cars in Tactile Town with commercially available toy cars and vehicles. 
Photo of car included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each car. Note: Omit application of Velcoins to some or all of the cars if a gliding movement of the cars on the Veltex surface is preferred. 
6  Railroad Tracks

Photo of railroad track included in Tactile Town.
 
Apply 4 Velcoins to the underside of the railroad tracks. 
7  Stop Signs  Photo of stop sign included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each stop sign. Slight trimming of the Velcoin is needed to fit the semicircular base. 
8  Pedestrians
(2 yellow with smooth texture and 2 blue with bumpy texture)

Note: The base of each pedestrian stand has a tactile pointer to assist with more specific directional alignment. 
Photo of pedestrian included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each pedestrian. Slight trimming of the Velcoin is needed to fit the semicircular base. 
9  Pedestal Traffic Lights  Photo of pedestal traffic light included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each pedestal traffic light. Slight trimming of the Velcoin is needed to fit the semicircular base. 
10  Yield Signs  Photo of yield sign included in Tactile Town.  Apply 1 Velcoin to the base of each yield sign. Slight trimming of the Velcoin is needed to fit the semicircular base. 
ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES 
Item  Description  Quantity  Application
of Velcoins 
Note: All of the Environmental Features, except the pond, are backed with full coverage hook Velcro. No assembly is required. 
1  Sidewalks (Long)
6-1/2" (l) x 1/4" (w)

Photo of long sidewalk included in Tactile Town.
 
10  N/A 
2  Sidewalks (Short)
3-3/8" (l) x 1/4" (w)

Photo of short sidewalk included in Tactile Town.
 
N/A 
3  Pond
(light blue, irregular shape) 
Photo of pond included in Tactile Town.  Apply 4 Velcoins to one side of the pond. 
4  Flat Traffic Lights  Photo of flat traffic light included in Tactile Town.   N/A 
5  Road Dashes
1" (l) x 1/4" 
Photo of road dash included in Tactile Town.  66  N/A 
6  Long Crosswalks with Transverse Lines
6" (l) x 3/8"

Photo of long crosswalk with transverse lines included in Tactile Town.
 
N/A 
7  Short Crosswalks with Transverse Lines
3" (l) x 3/8"

Photo of short crosswalk with transverse lines included in Tactile Town.
 
12  N/A 
8  Long Crosswalks with Longitudinal Lines
6" (l) x 3/8"

Photo of long crosswalk with longitudinal lines included in Tactile Town.
 
N/A 
9  Short Crosswalks with Longitudinal Lines
3" (l) x 3/8"

Photo of short crosswalk with longitudinal lines included in Tactile Town.
 
12  N/A 
10  Medians/Dividing Lines
(all yellow) 8 1/2" (l) x 1/4"

Photo of median/dividing line included in Tactile Town.
 
N/A 
11  Arrows (straight)  Photo of straight arrow included in Tactile Town.  N/A 
12  Arrows (curved)
2 left turns; 2 right turns 
Photo of curved left and right arrows included in Tactile Town.  N/A 
13  Splitter Islands
(yellow triangles) 
Photo of splitter island (yellow triangle) included in Tactile Town.  N/A 
KIT ACCESSORIES 
Item  Description  Quantity  Application
of Velcoins 
1  Inkjet Hook Paper®  Photo of sheets of Inkjet Hook Paper included in Tactile Town.  1 package of 10 sheets  N/A 
2  Braillable Labels and Sheets  Photo of front cover of Braillable Labels and Sheets package.  1 package of 15 sheets  N/A 
3  Pre-printed/brailled labels
(i.e., street names, locations, zoo labels, direction labels, personal names) 
Photo of pre-printed/brailled labels included in Tactile Town.  61  Apply a single Velcoin to the back of each print/braille label. 
4  Tri-fold Board  Photo of Tri-fold Board included in  Tactile Town.  N/A 
5  Storage/Carrying Box with Compartment Tray  N/A 
6  Storage Panels
(3-hole punched) 
Photo of 3-hole punched storage panel included in Tactile Town.  N/A 
7  Teacher's Guidebook (print edition with CD)  Image of front cover of Tactile Town guidebook.  N/A 

Note: Actual colors, quantities, and relative sizes of kit components may vary from those shown in the photos.

STORAGE TIPS

A carrying box with a 3-section compartment tray is provided for convenient storage and transport of Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit components. Here are a few tips for storing the materials in the box:

CREATING CUSTOMIZED LABELS

Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit provides combined braille and print labels to facilitate activities presented in this guidebook. However, separate packages of 8.5" x 11" Braillable Sheets and Inkjet Hook Paper are included in the kit to allow you to conveniently design and create customized labels to match actual street names, locations, and important landmarks found in your own town or immediate surroundings. To create your own labels, choose from one of the following options:

OPTION 1

Step 1: Using a computer application such as Microsoft® Word or PowerPoint, prepare an electronic file with needed labels on an 8.5" x 11" page (landscape or portrait orientation). Give attention to ideal font style and size, as well as text and background colors, if used with low vision students. Group as many labels as possible on a single page to utilize a full sheet of Inkjet Hook Paper.

Image of 8.5 x 11 layout of multi-up labels and arrows for printing on Inkjet Hook Paper.

Step 2: Using an inkjet printer [not a laser printer or copier], print the labels onto the smooth side of the Inkjet Hook Paper.

Triangle "CAUTION" symbol.  IMPORTANT: Only use the Inkjet Hook Paper with inkjet printers. DO NOT USE WITH LASER PRINTERS OR COPIERS-to do so can cause the Inkjet Hook Paper to melt and consequently damage or ruin the laser printer/copier. Consult the printing instructions that accompany the Inkjet Hook Paper for proper printing procedures. 

Step 3: Braille the text of each label on a clear Braillable Sheet using a braillewriter or slate and stylus. Affix each cutout adhesive braille label directly on top of the print counterpart. Cut the assembled label to a finished rectangular shape. Ideally, the upper-right corner of the label should have a diagonal cut for orientation purposes. Note: The application of the clear, brailled label to the print label will ensure durability for repeated use.

Image of front cover of Braillable Labels and Sheets.

OPTION 2

If you do not have access to an inkjet printer, text for needed labels can be handwritten on the Inkjet Hook Paper using permanent, bold markers. Contrasting background colors can be added to the printed text as well (e.g., a yellow background added to black text using a highlighter marker). Then affix braille labels as described above in OPTION 1: Step 3.

Apart from braille/print labels, Inkjet Hook Paper can be used to create customized accessories for use with Tactile Town. For example, rivers/ponds, parking lots, trees, arrows, etc., can be prepared using colorful images printed on the Inkjet Hook Paper. Cutting discernible edges/outlines around the printed images and/or embellishing cutout shapes with tactile lines or textures will accommodate both tactile and print readers.

Note: Additional packages of 8.5" x 11" Braillable Sheets [Catalog No. 1-08874-00] and Inkjet Hook Paper [Catalog No. 1-04970-00] can be purchased from APH.

ADDING ACCESSORIES

The components provided with Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit can be expanded with the use of commercially acquired, self-made, or materials from related APH products such as Picture Maker: Wheatley Tactile Diagramming Kit. For example, additional toy cars, landmark embellishments (e.g., trees, bushes, animals, mailboxes), and pedestrians can be located at local toy stores, craft stores, in school supply catalogs, and through online sources. Manufacturers of train model accessories, dollhouse miniatures, and Christmas village decorations are especially convenient sources of miniatures.

Photo of two Hot Wheels cars used within a Tactile Town layout.

SUGGESTED LAYOUT ACTIVITIES

The suggested layout activities presented in this section demonstrate various ways that Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit can be used to introduce, reinforce, and expand mapping concepts and skills to students with visual impairments and blindness. The activities are presented in a progressive manner-from basic compass directions to a complex city block. The instructor is strongly encouraged to develop specific activities based on the needs of each individual student.

Each of the 17 suggested layouts include the following sections:

Tactile Town Materials-This section provides a checklist of Tactile Town materials required to set up the suggested layout.
Layout Preparation-This section details the initial setup of the display board using Tactile Town components before actual use with the student.
Sample Activities-This section provides example questions or instructions that can be posed to the student regarding the presented layout. In many cases, multiple concepts and skills can be addressed using a single setup. Use Appendix A: Tactile Town: Concepts/Skills Checklist to monitor a student's progress. An electronic version of this checklist is available on the CD accompanying the Tactile Town guidebook so that the instructor can create and save a customized checklist for each student using this kit.
Pretend Play-This section extends the original task by encouraging the student to interact directly with the presented map by positioning buildings, adding labels, walking pretend routes, moving cars and pedestrians, and so forth.

Before using Tactile Town with the student, review the purpose of maps. Explain that a map is a representation of one's surroundings such as a neighborhood, school campus, city, etc. It usually provides an aerial or "birds-eye" view of where buildings, streets, and other landmarks are located in relation to each other. Although the size and structure of a map's features will differ significantly from those in the real setting, its use will assist in navigation from a starting place to a desired destination.

It is important to allow the student to explore and become familiar with the various components included in Tactile Town before introducing specific map layouts. Highlight and discuss identifying textures, colors, shapes, and orientation features (front/back, top/bottom) of each piece-e.g., sidewalks, crosswalks, buildings, traffic signs, etc. When possible, compare and contrast these models with the actual objects they represent. Discuss similarities and differences. For example, compare a real stop sign with the model of the stop sign. Emphasize that some features such as road dashes and crosswalk lines are visual, not tactile, in the real environment.

Apart from formal instruction, encourage open-ended play by allowing the student to independently create maps of his own choosing. Encouraging the student to be the designer of a map (versus the receiver) will promote his understanding that maps are symbolic and often cannot adequately or accurately represent familiar surroundings no matter how hard we try. By constructing his own map, the student builds the design around landmarks and environmental features that are personally meaningful and important to him.

As each Tactile Town map is explored, encourage the student's expressive and receptive language skills. For example, ask the student to describe a route to a specific destination while tracing it (tactually or visually) on the map. Also invite him to pose questions about the map to the instructor or a classmate to promote critical thinking skills and further analysis.

Always position a Tactile Town layout at a reachable distance from the student and with a North direction arrow (or full compass rose) incorporated into the display. Because of its size, the Tri-fold Board best facilitates map setups when used indoors on a large table or floor area. Smaller boards, such as APH's Picture Maker, are more convenient to take to actual sites and serve as an intermediate step between three-dimensional, larger scale maps presented with Tactile Town and more abstract, two-dimensional raised-line maps.

IMPORTANT: Don't stop with Tactile Town! Use it as a stepping stone to the student's understanding and use of other forms of tactile maps.

LAYOUT 1: COMPASS DIRECTIONS (BASIC)

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 1: COMPASS DIRECTIONS (BASIC). A compass rose is constructed using direction labels N, E, S, and W and road dashes as directional links. A pedestrian piece is positioned in the center of the compass rose facing north.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

A compass rose is constructed using direction labels N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW, and N. Road dashes and a North-pointing arrow are used as directional links. A pedestrian piece is positioned in the center of the compass rose facing north.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Make a compass rose using the direction labels, placing the pedestrian in the center from which all directions radiate outward. Position the pedestrian facing north. Use the white road dashes to provide links to the direction labels; the white arrow will point north. Begin with a compass rose that includes only the N, S, E, and W labels. Eventually increase difficulty by adding the NE, SE, NW, and SW labels.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Begin with a compass rose constructed with only the N, S, E, and W labels and orient the student to the tactile face of the pedestrian piece. Also, draw attention to the raised tactile pointer on the base of the pedestrian that allows more exact alignment with a specific direction.

Continue to give similar instructions to the student using the N-S-E-W compass rose configuration. Practice directional turns-180-degree turn, 360-degree turn, etc.

Construct a compass rose using all of the direction labels-N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW. Place the pedestrian in the center of the compass rose facing north and then orient the student to the tactile face of the pedestrian piece, as well as to the tactile pointer on its base:

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 2: COMPASS DIRECTIONS (INTERMEDIATE)

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 2: COMPASS DIRECTIONS (INTERMEDIATE). A compass rose is constructed using labeled houses to represent N, E, S, and W directions. A lake appears in the center of the compass rose. A compass rose using N, E, S, and W appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display. A north-pointing arrow and road dashes are used as directional links.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a compass rose is constructed with labeled houses and the pond/lake as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

Tip on building a compass rose: Link the straight arrow piece with three road dashes to build a compass rose and then affix separate direction labels.

Photo of a basic compass rose constructed using a straight arrow piece to indicate north and three road dashes to indicate E, S, W directions.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the compass rose in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Arrange four houses around the pond so that each house represents a different cardinal direction (N, S, E, and W). Place personal name labels in close proximity to each house and in a consistent location (e.g., next to the front door).

Close-up photo of a personal name label ("SAM") positioned next to front door of house.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 3: COMPASS DIRECTIONS (ADVANCED)

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 3: COMPASS DIRECTIONS (ADVANCED). A compass rose is constructed using labeled houses to represent N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW directions. A pond/lake appears in the center of the compass rose. A north-pointing arrow and road dashes are used as directional links.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a basic compass rose constructed using a straight arrow piece to indicate north and seven road dashes to indicate NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW directions.   Photo of a basic compass rose constructed using a straight arrow piece to indicate north and road dashes to indicate NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW directions; an extra road dash is added to the N, E, S, W directions. 

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Photo of a compass rose constructed with labeled houses and the pond/lake as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." A compass rose showing N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW directions appear in the upper right-hand corner of the display; a north pointing arrow and road dashes are used as directional links.

Place the compass rose in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Arrange eight houses around the pond so that each house represents a different cardinal direction (N, S, E, W, NE, SE, NW, and SW). Link each house to the pond with a single road dash (and arrow for north) to mimic the tactile/visual design of the compass rose. To add tactile differentiation to the compass rose, use large houses to represent the N, S, E, and W directions and small houses to represent the NE, SE, NW, and SW directions. Place personal name labels in close proximity to each house and in a consistent location (e.g., next to the front door) and in a readable position.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 4: ZOO LAYOUT

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 4: ZOO LAYOUT. A photo shows a constructed zoo layout as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Close-up photo shows west side of zoo layout.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Position the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Use the entire area of the Tri-fold Board to set up the zoo layout. Start by arranging the green rectangles around the outer periphery of the board, allowing some "walking" space between the animal exhibits. Place the lion exhibit (built with two rectangles) in the northwest corner of the zoo. Then, moving clockwise around the zoo, add the following exhibits: seals, tigers (built with two rectangles), zebras, snakes, monkeys, hippos, and birds. Apply the zoo labels directly on top of the positioned grassy areas (or animal exhibits). The "entrance" and "exit" labels can be placed between the monkey and snake exhibits, with the exit to the left of the entrance. In the center of the zoo, place a green circle to represent a "fountain." On either side of the fountain, place a green square. Add small houses to these squares, along with labels, to represent the locations of "snacks" (to the right of the fountain) and "gifts" (to the left of the fountain). Position the pond between the bird exhibit and the gift stand.

Close-up photo of pedestrian standing near lake and gift stand within the zoo layout.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY

LAYOUT 5: SINGLE BLOCK

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 5: SINGLE BLOCK. A single block layout is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

A single block layout is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION" with labeled buildings added at each corner.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the compass rose in the upper right-hand corner of the display board; apply only the N, S, E, and W labels. Build a large single block in the center of the board using four green rectangles Then apply the NW, NE, SW, and SE labels to the appropriate corners of the block.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 6: SINGLE BLOCK (ADVANCED)

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 6: SINGLE BLOCK (ADVANCED). A single block layout is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Buildings are added to the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of LAYOUT 6: SINGLE BLOCK (ADVANCED). A single block layout is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." NE, SE, SW, and NW labels are added to the corners of the block.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Position the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Using four separate green rectangles, build a large single block in the center of the board. Apply the two short, narrow strips to the east and west sides of the block; apply the two long, narrow strips to the north and south sides of the block. Allow enough space to build two lanes of traffic using the white road dashes. Place a green square in each of the four outer corners. Insert street labels within the road dash lines so that Elm street runs along the north side of the block, Oak street runs along the west side of the block, Main street runs along the south side of the block, and Ash street runs along the east side of the block. [Note: If desired, simplify the display by omitting the road dashes and keeping the street names in place.]

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 7: STANDARD INTERSECTION

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 7: STANDARD INTERSECTION. A standard intersection layout is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Labeled buildings are added to each block corner of the intersection and a traffic light is positioned in the center of the intersection.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of LAYOUT 7: STANDARD INTERSECTION. A standard intersection layout is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Labeled buildings are added to each block corner of the intersection and a traffic light is positioned in the center of the intersection.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Photo of a standard intersection layout constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." NW, SW, NE, and SE labels are added to the appropriate blocks of the intersection and a traffic light appears in the center of the intersection.

Place the compass rose in the upper right-hand corner of the display board; apply only N, S, E, and W labels. Build a standard intersection using four green rectangles to represent four separate blocks. Allow enough space between the blocks to build two lanes of traffic using the white road dashes. Insert street labels within the road dash lines so that Elm street runs east to west and Oak street runs north to south.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 8: INTERSECTION WITH CROSSWALKS

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 8: INTERSECTION WITH CROSSWALKS. A large standard intersection is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Labeled buildings, sidewalks, crosswalks, and a traffic light are added to the display. The NE, SE, NW, NE blocks are labeled with direction labels.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

A large standard intersection is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Sidewalks, crosswalks, and a traffic light are added to the display. The blocks are labeled with direction labels.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Then build four blocks, each made from two rectangles placed together along their long edges. The resulting blocks will be square shaped. Allow space between each block to accommodate the insertion of a 3-inch crosswalk. Use white road dashes to create two-way traffic lanes. Insert street labels within the road dash lines so that Main street runs east to west and 1st street runs north to south.

Close-up photo of labeled SW block.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

Review intersection approaches and safety concerns when crossing streets.

Review traffic flow patterns:

LAYOUT 9: COMPLEX INTERSECTION

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 9: COMPLEX INTERSECTION. A complex intersection is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Labeled buildings, sidewalks, crosswalks, dividing lines/medians, and a traffic light are added to the display. The blocks are labeled with direction labels.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of LAYOUT 9: COMPLEX INTERSECTION. A complex intersection is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Sidewalks, crosswalks, dividing lines/medians, cars, and a traffic light are added to the display. The blocks are labeled with direction labels.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Then build four blocks, each made from two rectangles placed together along their long edges. Allow space between each block to accommodate the insertion of a 6-inch crosswalk. Use yellow dividing lines and white road dashes to create four lanes of traffic on both Elm street and 2nd street. Place street labels within the road dash lines (close to or overlapping the dividing lines) so that Elm street runs east to west (and west to east), and 2nd street runs north to south (and south to north). Elm street will have two lanes flowing east to west, and two lanes flowing west to east; 2nd street will have two lanes flowing north to south, and two lanes flowing south to north.

Close-up photo of 2nd street with the street label overlapping positioned dividing line/median.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Close-up photo of Tactile Town pedestrian walking along a crosswalk within the intersection.

PRETEND PLAY:

Begin with a discussion about potential safety concerns when crossing streets.

Review more complex traffic flow patterns (i.e., two lanes of two-way traffic for Elm and 2nd streets):

LAYOUT 10: T-INTERSECTION

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 10: T-INTERSECTION. A T-intersection is constructed with green grassy areas, buildings, road dashes, and street labels. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a T-Intersection constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, and street labels as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Place the long narrow green strip across the top of the display board, extended on each end by a small square. Then build two large blocks, each made from three rectangles placed together with their long edges touching. Leave space between the long narrow strip and the top edges of the two large blocks to allow two-lane traffic flow on Ash street. Also, leave space between the two large blocks to permit two-lane traffic flow on Oak street. Ash street runs east to west (and west to east) and Oak street runs north to south (and south to north). Insert road dashes and street labels along Oak and Ash streets.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Close-up of T-intersection with positioned buildings.

PRETEND PLAY:

Review traffic flow patterns:

Close-up photo of a T-intersection with a 3-way stop incorporated. A car is positioned next to each stop sign.

Photo of a large T-intersection embellished with labeled buildings, stop signs, cars, road dashes, and a North indicator.

LAYOUT 11: Y-INTERSECTION

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 11: Y-INTERSECTION. A Y-intersection is constructed with green grassy areas, a labeled building, road dashes, stop signs, and street labels. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a Y-intersection constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, and street labels as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Place the triangle at the top of the display board with its longest side facing the top of the Tri-fold Board. Starting at the base of the board, link two rectangles along their short edges on both sides of a two-lane road. Then place a wedge above each rectangle to form a Y-intersection. Label the north-south road Elm street, the right-branching road Oak street, and the left-branching road Ash street. Insert road dashes to create two-way traffic lanes within all three streets.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Photo of a Y-intersection with side road branching to the left.

Photo of a Y-intersection with side road branching to the right.

PRETEND PLAY:

Photo of a Y-intersection embellished with a building, stop signs, cars, road dashes, labels, crosswalks, and a North indicator.

LAYOUT 12: OFFSET INTERSECTION

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 12: OFFSET INTERSECTION. An offset intersection constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, and street labels. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of an offset intersection constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, and street labels as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Then build four blocks, each made from two green rectangles placed together along their long edges. Offset the blocks so that Elm and Oak streets, which both run north to south, are not directly across from each other at the intersection. Ash street runs in an east to west direction. Use white road dashes to create traffic lanes.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

PRETEND PLAY:

Photo of an offset intersection embellished with labeled buildings, cars, stop signs, crosswalks, direction labels, road dashes, and a North indicator.

Close-up photo of an offset intersection where two Tactile Town pedestrians are walking along crosswalks.

LAYOUT 13: DEAD-END STREET

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 13: DEAD-END STREET. An intersection with dead-end street is constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, a traffic light, and street labels. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of an intersection with a dead-end street constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, and street labels as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Buildings are added on block corners and a traffic light is positioned in the center of the intersection.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Then build four blocks, allowing space between each. The NW and NE blocks are each built using only one rectangle. The SW and SE blocks are each built with two rectangles placed together along their long edges. The long narrow strip is placed against the east sides of the NE and SE blocks to create a dead-end street. Main street runs in a north-south direction, and Elm street runs in an east-west direction. White road dashes are used to create traffic lanes.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Close-up photo of the dead-end street.

PRETEND PLAY:

Photo of intersection with dead-end street embellished with labeled buildings, road dashes, street labels, crosswalks, stop signs, and pedestrians.

LAYOUT 14: RAILROAD CROSSING

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 14: RAILROAD CROSSING. A street with a railroad crossing is constructed with green grassy areas, railroad tracks, a street label, and road dashes. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a street with a railroad crossing is constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Labeled buildings, stop signs, a street label, and cars are added to the setup.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Connect four green rectangles along their long edges on both sides of the north-south road (Main street) allowing insertion of a railroad track running in an east-west direction. Link two railroad tracks to extend beyond the ends of the blocks. Insert white road dashes to create two lanes of traffic.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Close-up photo of street with railroad crossing.

PRETEND PLAY:

LAYOUT 15: CUL-DE-SAC

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 15: CUL-DE-SAC.  A cul-de-sac is constructed with green grassy areas, road dashes, cars, labeled buildings, a yield sign, and street labels. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a cul-de-sac constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Labeled buildings, stop signs, street labels, a yield sign, cars, and a left turn arrow are added to the setup. A "fountain" label is positioned on the small circular island within the cul-de-sac.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Place the green cul-de-sac piece with the key-hole opening in an upright position. Insert a small green circle in the center of the cul-de-sac. Extend the length of the road leading to the circle by placing a short, narrow green strip (in a horizontal position) below each short edge of the cul-de-sac. Add a long, narrow green strip below the cul-de-sac allowing a gap for the insertion of a two-way street built with the road dashes. Put one square on each side of the long strip. The east-west road is labeled Elm street, and the road leading into the cul-de-sac is labeled Ash street.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Photo of cars traveling around the cul-de-sac.

PRETEND PLAY:

Photo of a residential cul-de-sac embellished with numerous houses around the circular roadway.

LAYOUT 16: ROUNDABOUT

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 16: ROUNDABOUT.  A roundabout is constructed using green grassy areas, dividing lines, splitter islands, road dashes, labels,  turn arrows, crosswalks, sidewalks, yield signs, and cars. A North indicator appears in the upper right-hand corner of the display.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a roundabout constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Buildings and pedestrians are added to the setup. A "fountain" label is positioned on the small circular island within the roundabout.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Position the large green circle in the middle of the board and label it "fountain." Surround the circle with four roundabout corners, leaving enough space for two-lane (exiting and entering) traffic flow. To extend the intersection, place a short edge of one green rectangle against the flat side of each roundabout corner. Place a yellow dividing line down the center of each approaching roadway. At the end of each dividing strip, nearest the roundabout, add a yellow triangle (splitter island) to separate entering and exiting traffic. Place a yield sign at each entry to the roundabout. Label the east-west road Elm street and the north-south road Oak street. Extend short crosswalks between the blocks; the crosswalks should overlap the splitter islands. Add sidewalks to the green grassy areas and link them to the crosswalks; the curved portion of the sidewalks can be built by linking four or five road dashes.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Close-up photo of Tactile Town pedestrian stopping at a splitter island when crossing one lane of traffic at a time within the roundabout. A car is yielding at the entry to the roundabout.

Review the unique layout of a roundabout and compare it to a standard intersection.

PRETEND PLAY:

Photo of pedestrian using a crosswalk within the roundabout layout.

LAYOUT 17: ADVANCED CITY BLOCK

Divider Page: Photo of LAYOUT 17: ADVANCED CITY BLOCK. A large city block is constructed with 16 green grassy areas in a 4 by 4 arrangement. Road dashes, street labels, and traffic lights are added to the display.  A North indicator is positioned in the upper right-hand corner of the board.

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of a large city block constructed as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION." Buildings, pedestrians, crosswalks, sidewalks, and cars are added to the scene.

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Close-up photo of a section of the large city block. Buildings are labeled and pedestrians are using crosswalks within the display.

Use the entire Tri-fold Board to create a 4 x 4 city block layout. Allow enough space to fit the length of the shortest crosswalk between blocks in all directions. Position the North indicator in the upper-right corner of the display board. Position multiple buildings throughout the city block arrangement and have them face different directions. Some of the buildings can occupy a whole city block or an entire block can be designated as a "park." Name the north-south streets (from left to right) 1st, 2nd, and 3rd; name the east-west streets (from top to bottom) Ash, Elm, and Oak. Insert white road dashes to create traffic lanes.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES:

Close-up photo of a section of the large city block layout. Buildings are labeled and pedestrians are using crosswalks within the display.

Practice a variety of concepts encountered throughout previous layouts. For example, ask the student to do the following:

PRETEND PLAY:

APPENDIX A: TACTILE TOWN CONCEPTS/SKILLS CHECKLIST

Note: A Microsoft® Word file of this checklist is available on the accompanying Tactile Town CD. Use this electronic file to track and save the progress of an individual student.

TACTILE TOWN
Concepts/Skills Checklist 
Indicate the student's level of understanding for each of the concepts/skills listed.
N = No current understanding of the concept/skill
E = Emerging understanding of the concept/skill
S = Shows consistent generalization and mastery of the concept/skill
W = Wider understanding of the concept/skill as demonstrated in the student's actual surroundings/town
 
Student's Name: 
DIRECTIONAL TERMS/COMPASS DIRECTIONS 
  
Compass Rose             
East             
North             
Northeast             
Northwest             
South             
Southeast             
Southwest             
West             
COMMENTS: 
SPATIAL/POSITIONAL CONCEPTS 
  
Above             
Across from             
Around             
Away from             
Backward             
Beginning             
Behind             
Below             
Beneath             
Beside             
Between             
Center             
Clockwise             
Close             
Counterclockwise             
Curved             
Diagonal             
End             
Far             
Forward             
Horizontal             
In front of             
Left             
Middle             
Near             
Next door             
Opposite             
Parallel             
Perpendicular             
Right             
Straight             
Through             
Toward             
Vertical             
COMMENTS: 
ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES 
  
Alley             
Building             
Bus shelter/stop             
Car/vehicle             
Crosswalk             
Curb cut             
Driveway             
Grassline/shoreline             
Intersecting sidewalks             
Landmark             
Median strip             
Parking lot             
Pedestrian             
Railroad tracks/crossing             
Sidewalk with grass shoreline             
Sidewalk without grass shoreline             
Splitter islands             
Stop sign/traffic sign             
Street corner             
Street name             
Traffic lane             
Traffic light/signal             
Yield sign             
COMMENTS: 
SINGLE BLOCK CONCEPTS 
  
Overall shape of a single block             
Definition of a block             
Number of sides             
Number of corners             
Corners (NE, SE, NW, SW)             
Sidewalk pattern at corner             
Parallel and perpendicular (sidewalks at corner; streets at corner)             
Corner house or building borders two streets             
COMMENTS: 
SINGLE BLOCK TRAVEL 
  
Locates intersecting sidewalk at corner             
Recognizes block length differences             
Recognizes beginning and end of block             
Identifies two routes to a diagonal corner             
Travels block clockwise             
Travels block counterclockwise             
Walks around block and identifies: direction of travel, parallel street, cross street ahead, and cross street behind             
Identifies middle of block             
COMMENTS: 
INTERSECTION CONCEPTS/SKILLS 
  
Cul-de-sac             
Dead-end street             
Offset intersection             
Parallel streets             
Perpendicular streets             
Plus-shape/standard intersection             
Roundabout             
T-intersection             
Through street             
Traffic circle             
Traffic lane             
Two streets and four corners             
Y-intersection             
COMMENTS: 
GRID PATTERN CONCEPTS/CITY BLOCK 
  
North/south streets cross east/west streets             
All streets have two sides             
Streets continue for many blocks             
Some buildings border two streets             
COMMENTS: 
TRAFFIC PATTERNS 
  
Four lanes of traffic             
Two lanes of traffic             
1-way street             
2-way stop             
2-way street             
3-way stop             
4-way stop             
Turning lane             
Identifies where traffic is (i.e., parallel street and perpendicular street)             
Identifies where traffic is stopped or moving             
COMMENTS: 
TRAFFIC/ROUTE PATTERNS 
  
45-degree turn             
90-degree turn             
180-degree turn             
360-degree turn             
Around the block             
L-pattern             
Straight-line travel             
Travel to a reference point             
U-pattern             
Z-pattern             
COMMENTS: 

APPENDIX B: TACTILE TOWN GAMES

TIC-TAC-TOWN

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

: Photo of Tic-Tac-Town game layout as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

Set up a 3 x 3 Tic-Tac-Toe grid on a storage panel (or on the Tri-fold Board) using the yellow dividing lines. Instead of Xs and Os, use stop signs and cars as the game tokens.

GAME INSTRUCTIONS:

Follow same rules as used for standard Tic-Tac-Toe games. The first player to get three in a row (horizontally, vertically, or diagonally) wins the game.

VARIATIONS:

Use other Tactile Town manipulatives (e.g., houses, flat traffic lights) as game tokens.

TURNABOUT

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Photo of Turnabout game layout as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

Set up a 2 x 4 grid on one of the provided storage panels (or on the Tri-fold Board) using the yellow dividing lines. In the first column, position the pedestrians so that each faces a different direction-north, south, east, and west. Likewise, position the cars so that each faces a different direction in the second column. One player will be the "pedestrians," and the other player will be the "cars."

GAME INSTRUCTIONS:

Have each player take turns with the instructor-prepared spinner. Whatever direction the spinner indicates, the player must rotate only one of her tokens to face that direction. For example, if the spinner shows "south," then the player must rotate only one of her tokens to face south. Each player spins only once on each of her turns. The winner is the first player to have all four of her tokens facing the same direction.

VARIATIONS:

Instead of a spinner, create individual cards labeled north, south, east, and west. Make three to four duplicates of each and shuffle the cards. Have the players take turns drawing the direction cards.

Extend the game to involve three or four players by adding other Tactile Town pieces as game tokens. Choose pieces that have directionality as part of their design (e.g., straight arrow pieces or houses/buildings). A larger grid can be built by adding more dividing lines.

BUDDY SEARCH

TACTILE TOWN MATERIALS:

Photo of Buddy Search game layout as described in "LAYOUT PREPARATION."

LAYOUT PREPARATION:

Place the North indicator in the upper right-hand corner of the display board. Then set up a 4 x 4 grid using the green rectangles (rounded and square corners). Link the rectangles with a combination of crosswalk and sidewalk pieces from mid-block to mid-block. Place two pedestrians in two different starting locations on any of the 16 blocks, one per player (or team). Each player's (or team's) pedestrians will be distinguished by a specific texture (i.e., bumpy or smooth) and color (i.e., blue or yellow). Then place the players' (or teams') matching "buddies" at two different destinations. The "buddies" stay in the same position throughout the game and are never moved by the players/teams. To help identify the destinations, place a labeled building next to each buddy. Shuffle the "directional prompt" game cards and place them in close proximity to the board.

GAME INSTRUCTIONS:

On each turn, the player (or team) draws a card and moves his pedestrian accordingly (even if the direction takes the player away from his destination or "buddy"); if he cannot execute the move, another card can be drawn. During the game, the instructor should ask the players/teams questions regarding their current locations, which direction they are traveling, and so forth, to reinforce various O&M skills and concepts. The winner is the first player (or team) to find his buddy-that is, reach the same block that his buddy is located.

VARIATIONS:

The grid layout can be embellished with additional labeled buildings, cars, stop signs, and so forth, to make the game more interesting and challenging. New "directional prompt" cards can be incorporated based upon new layout features.

APPENDIX C: RELATED APH PRODUCTS

Listed below are APH products that are specifically designed to teach or assist in the instruction of orientation and mobility concepts.

Listed below are APH instructional and recreational materials that can be used to reinforce spatial and positional concepts.

Listed below are APH products that can be used by the teacher or student to construct simple tactile displays.

Continue to visit www.aph.org for announcements of new products related to orientation and mobility instruction that are produced by the American Printing House for the Blind.

Product photo of APH's Web Chase.  Product photo of APH's Feel 'n Peel Sheets: Carousel of Textures.  Product photo of APH's DRAFTSMAN: Tactile Drawing Board. 

REFERENCES

Budd, J. M., & LaGrow, S. J. (2000). Using a three-dimensional interactive model to teach environmental concepts to visually impaired children. RE:view, 32, 83-84.

Cummings, R. (1999). Map skills: Grade 2 (Basic Skills Series). Instructional Fair.

Dodson-Burke, B., & Hill, E. (1989) An orientation and mobility primer for families and young children. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

Fazzi, D. L., & Petersmeyer, B. A. (2001). Imagining the possibilities: Creative approaches to orientation and mobility instruction for persons who are visually impaired. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

International Institute for Highway Safety: Highway Loss Data Institute. (2005). Q&As: Roundabouts. Retrieved July 9, 2010 from http://www.iihs.org/research/qanda/roundabouts.html

Jacobson, W. H. (1993). The art and science of teaching orientation and mobility to persons with visual impairments. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

LaGrow, S., & Weessies, M. (1994). Orientation & mobility: Techniques for independence. Palmerton North, New Zealand: The Dunmore Press Limited.

Long, R. G., Guth, D. A., Ashmead, D. H., Emerson, R. W., & Ponchillia, P. E. (2005). Modern roundabouts: Access by pedestrians who are blind. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 99, 611-621.

Rushdoony, H. A. (1988). Exploring our world with maps (Grades K-6). Fearon Teacher Aids.

Sapp, W. (2003). Cognitive mapping of large scale simple environments in 10-17 year old children who are blind: Use of tactual maps, tactual models, and verbal descriptions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville.

Texas School for the Blind. Teaching age-appropriate purposeful skills (TAPS): An orientation & mobility curriculum for students with visual impairments. (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Texas School for the Blind.

Ungar, S., Blades, M., & Spencer, C. (1996). The ability of visually impaired children to locate themselves on a tactile map. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 90, 526-535.

Ungar, S., Blades, M., Spencer, C., & Morsley, K. (1994). Can visually impaired children use tactile maps to estimate directions? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 88, 221-223.

Welsh, R. L., & Blasch, B. B. (1980). Foundations of orientation and mobility. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.