Rare earth elements (REEs) are essential components in high-tech manufacturing, electric vehicle production and renewable energy projects, making them national strategic resources.
Samarium, for instance, is often combined with neodymium to create heat-resistant magnets and old TV screens and fluorescent light bulbs that resist heat damage. Furthermore, radar production utilizes it extensively as well as adding strength to magnesium and aluminum alloys.
Yttrium (Y) is an important rare earth element found in some alloys and optical glasses, as well as being used as a catalyst and catalyst support material. Furthermore, its numerous radioactive isotopes exist within it such as one known as Yttrium-90 that may help treat cancer as well as some bone diseases.
Yttrium can also be found in powerful pulsed lasers, MRI scanners, and alloys resistant to high temperature. Due to its neutron capture rate, it's also used in nuclear reactors to absorb unwanted neutrons and prevent chain reactions. Although rarely found as pure metal in nature, rare earth minerals often contain trace amounts of this lanthanide element.
Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes first discovered in 1911 that certain metals cooled to nearly absolute zero could become superconductors, with none of their resistance to electrical current being observed anymore. To create these superconductors more easily than other rare-earth elements, yttrium often teams up with copper in combination for this process and often makes an ideal material to work with.
Researchers have been developing batteries powered by rare-earth elements like yttrium to power cars without fossil fuels and extend battery lifespan compared to standard batteries.
Sustainable production methods must be established for essential raw materials. Their success ultimately hinges on consumers and manufacturers being willing to pay more for material produced ethically, as well as mechanisms within and without governments that ensure these sustainable methods are actually implemented.
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Terbium (pronounced TUR-bee-um) is one of the rare earth elements. A silvery-gray metal, it is relatively stable in air and reacts with cold water; it belongs to the Lanthanide series and, like yttrium, can be found in very small quantities in some minerals; Carl Gustaf Mosander first discovered terbium in 1843 from gadolinite, erbia and yttria extracted from Ytterbite mineral; this mineral later earned its name due to being near Ytterby in Sweden where this fraction was obtained; later named after this village as well.
Terbium, like many rare earths, typically exists in its +3 oxidation state and can be found both in solution and salt forms; salt forms behave much like yttrium; its color resembles that of its parent element yttrium and the +3 ion is often used to create green luminescent phosphors for television tubes and euro bank notes to combat counterfeiting, while its dopant properties make it useful as dopant in semiconductors and lasers.
Terbium has an atomic number of 65 and one isotope: terbium-155 which decays to yttrium-157 with an approximate half-life of 20.3 years. Most of the world's supply is obtained through solvent extraction and ion-exchange techniques from bastnasite mineral, with other sources including monazite sand, laterite ion-exchange clays, nuclear fission products as potential sources.
Like other rare earths, terbium has long been utilized for use in television cathodes for both x-ray and color television, magnets, electronic components and high-speed motors and generators used in hybrid vehicles. Terbium's unique magnetic properties also make it perfect for high-speed motors and generators that utilize its properties; its use usually involves alloying it with cobalt and nickel to increase production and prices further. Unfortunately, supply remains fairly limited but in 2012 a World Trade Organization dispute led to loosening export quotas from China that led to increased production as well as price growth in production and prices for this material.
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Dysprosium (atomic number 66) is an element in the rare earth family of lanthanides and has properties which make it suitable for applications such as improving permanent magnets, storing digital information, detecting radiation sources, emitting sonar pings, etc. It has two magnetic states; ferromagnetic at temperatures below about 87K-90K and antiferromagnetic above this temperature range. Furthermore, Dysprosium's hexagonal and closely packed lattice system make it suitable for room temperature solidification at room temperatures. Dysprosium's properties make it suitable for various applications including improving permanent magnets, improving permanent magnets by improving permanent magnets by improving permanent magnets themselves as well as emitting sonar pings from sonar sonar systems.
Dysprosium marked a monumental breakthrough in rare earth metal research. As its name indicates, it was the first rare earth element ever isolated as an individual compound and its name comes from two Greek words meaning hard or difficult and prositos ("to get at"). Although first found in 1878 in Philippia ore from Holmium mining operations near Philadelphia by French chemist Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran it wasn't truly isolated until 1886 by Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran who isolated its isolated form as pure substance.
Dysprosium can only rarely be found in nature in its pure state and usually appears combined with other elements. It is most frequently extracted from monazite and bastnasite minerals; however, trace amounts may also exist in other rare earth elements minerals like euxenite, fregusonite, and xenotime.
Dysprosium can be found in various compounds, including its oxide (Dy2O3) and iodide (DyI3) as well as nickel-dysprosium alloys used to cool nuclear reactors, while also being an integral part of permanent magnet production.
Dysprosium forms complexes with amphiphilic ligands such as p-toluidine (DTPA-BTolA), p-aminocoumarin (DTPA-BCoumA), p-naphthalene methylamine (DTPA-BNaphA), p-ethynylaniline (DTPA-BEthA), dodecylaniline (DTPA-BC12PheA), and tetradecylaniline (DTPA-BC14PheA). These complexes display strong magnetic anisotropy, making them ideal candidates for molecular spintronic applications; however, full potential is yet unexplored.
Neodymium (Nd) is a soft, silvery metal used in combination with praseodymium and samarium to produce some of the world's strongest magnets, found in loudspeakers, electric motors, computer hard disk drive spindles for increased compactness as well as various green technologies such as hybrid cars and wind turbines.
As with other lanthanides, gadolinium can be hazardous to skin or eye contact and prolonged inhalation can damage respiratory systems. Naturally occurring in only very minute quantities - usually combined with other rare earth elements or oxides - it is found only rarely. Monazite, xenotime and spent uranium solutions may contain trace amounts which can be extracted for use as sources for gadolinium extraction.
Luminescent properties of yttrium-aluminum-garnet lasers can be exploited through doping (the addition of rare earth elements at low concentrations to alter physical properties), producing wavelengths used in dentistry and medicine as well as rangefinders for guided missiles.
Demand for rare earth elements (REEs) has increased due to their use in batteries, magnets and photovoltaic cells essential to clean energy economy. Yet their recycling remains costly and infrastructural challenges; most electronic waste is currently shred or burned and its REEs cannot be recovered.
Sustainable, circular economies for these key elements will enable us to meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals relating to housing, urbanization and infrastructure development. Understanding how we access these resources safely and responsibly will be integral in shaping the future of our planet, economy and societies - for investors understanding supply-and-demand dynamics is paramount in making informed investment decisions.
Tungsten is one of the hardest metals on Earth but brittle in its pure state, requiring heating for workability. Therefore, alloys with other metals to strengthen them often include tungsten carbide (WC). This hard material forms the basis of various cutting tools while it also finds use as filaments in light bulbs.
Tungsten boasts the highest melting and second highest boiling points among metals, and has become increasingly expensive as its demand has increased. Most of the world's tungsten is mined in China and Russia for use as tungsten carbide; this material can then be ground into powder to form WC-Co, one of the most durable products from this material.
Tungsten is an exceptionally strong and durable material that can be formed into various shapes by being forge-forged, possessing excellent corrosion resistance properties, as well as being suitable for high temperature applications. Tungsten ingots made from this metal are often found in electronics appliances, mining equipment and industrial drilling and boring tools.
Rare and exotic metal, gold holds many applications in modern life that could benefit us in the near future. Although expensive, its value lies in its diverse applications that could lead to positive future benefits for humanity.