The impact of various factors on surrounding vegetation is an intricate subject that encompasses natural phenomena like climate change and direct human activities. Each element plays a significant role in shaping the condition, distribution, and health of plant life across different ecosystems.
Climate change is one of the most profound influences on vegetation. As global temperatures rise, precipitation patterns shift, and extreme weather events become more frequent, plant species are forced to adapt to these new conditions or face increased risk of stress and mortality. For example, prolonged droughts, which have become more common in areas such as the American West due to global warming, severely reduce water availability. This not only affects the growth and survival of native plants but also disrupts entire ecosystems that depend on those plants for sustenance and habitat.
Moreover, higher temperatures can alter the phenology of plants-the timing of seasonal activities like flowering, seed germination, and leafing. Such changes can lead to mismatches between the biological cycles of plants and pollinators, ultimately impacting reproductive success and survival rates. Additionally, climate change influences the geographical distribution of species by shifting climatic zones. This can lead to situations where invasive species thrive at the expense of native vegetation because they are better adapted to altered conditions or are no longer kept in check by previously limiting factors such as frost periods.
On another front, human activities contribute significantly to vegetation impacts through mechanisms such as urbanization, deforestation, agriculture, and pollution. Urbanization leads to land-use changes that often result in the loss of natural habitats for many species while increasing pollution levels in air, water, and soil. Buildings and paved surfaces replace green spaces not just reducing areas available for plants but also altering local microclimates-increasing local temperatures (urban heat islands), reducing humidity, and altering wind patterns which can negatively affect nearby vegetative areas.
Deforestation for timber extraction or to clear land for agriculture removes critical forest cover that serves numerous ecological functions including carbon storage-which helps mitigate climate change-water cycle regulation, and providing habitat for diverse wildlife species including many pollinators essential for many crops and wild plants.
Agriculture itself modifies landscapes extensively; it often involves replacing diverse ecosystems with single-crop fields along with heavy use of chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers which can be harmful when they runoff into local water bodies or seep into soils affecting non-target plant species negatively by altering soil chemistry or causing toxic build-ups.
Pollution from industrial activities further compounds stresses on plant life; airborne pollutants like sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides can lead directly to acid rain formation which damages leaves of trees as well as decreases soil quality affecting not only individual plants but also community dynamics within affected ecosystems.
To mitigate these impacts on vegetation careful management strategies must be implemented focusing on sustainability practices such as reforestation using native species restoration ecology principles designing resilient urban green spaces promoting organic farming limiting industrial emissions among others measures these efforts should ideally be backed by strong environmental policies informed public awareness campaigns ensuring long-term viability our planet's vital green infrastructure.
Assessing the impact of various factors on surrounding vegetation is crucial for environmental conservation, urban planning, and sustainable development. Various methodologies have been developed to study how different activities and environmental changes affect plant life. These methodologies range from field-based assessments to advanced technological approaches such as remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
One common method used in assessing the impact on vegetation is direct field observation. This involves botanists and ecologists visiting specific sites to record vegetation health, species diversity, and signs of distress or disease. They may collect data on plant height, canopy cover, leaf area index, and other physiological traits that indicate the overall health of the vegetation. Direct field observation allows for precise, localized studies but can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.
Another important methodology includes experimental manipulation where specific variables are controlled in a natural or simulated environment to observe how they affect plant growth and survival. For example, researchers might alter water levels, soil composition, or light exposure in controlled plots to study the effect of each variable on different plant species. This method helps in understanding causal relationships but can be limited by practical constraints related to controlling environmental conditions.
Remote sensing technology has revolutionized the way we assess environmental impacts on a larger scale. Using satellite imagery or aerial photography, scientists can monitor changes in vegetation cover over large areas and extended periods. This technology enables the detection of deforestation patterns, encroachment of invasive species, or recovery after natural disasters like fires or floods. Remote sensing provides a comprehensive overview but sometimes lacks the resolution needed for detailed local analysis.
GIS is another powerful tool used alongside remote sensing to analyze spatial patterns and trends in vegetation data. GIS applications allow integration of various data types – including climate records, land use change logs, topography – which can be layered with vegetation maps to identify potential impacts arising from urban expansion or climate change.
Lastly, ecological modeling offers insights into future impacts under different scenarios using predictive models based on current data trends. These models can simulate outcomes like habitat fragmentation due to urban sprawl or shifts in plant zones due to global warming.
Each of these methodologies has its strengths and limitations but typically they are used in combination for a more holistic approach. By integrating direct observations with advanced technologies like remote sensing and GIS modeling, researchers can provide more reliable recommendations for policy makers aiming at reducing negative impacts on vegetation while promoting environmental resilience and sustainability.
Understanding how our actions influence surrounding vegetation not only helps protect biodiversity but also supports ecosystems services that are vital for human well-being such as air purification, climate regulation, water filtration among others - making it an essential area of research within environmental sciences.
Environmental stressors such as pollution, climate change, and habitat destruction have profound impacts on local flora, causing significant shifts in vegetation patterns and ecosystem health. Through various case studies, we can explore the nature and extent of these changes, offering insights into the urgent need for environmental conservation efforts.
One notable example is found in the forests of North America where increased carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures have led to longer growing seasons. Initially, this might seem beneficial for plant growth; however, it also favors invasive species that outcompete native plants. A study conducted in the deciduous forests of eastern North America observed an alarming rise in invasive shrubs like Japanese stiltgrass which thrive under increased CO2 conditions. These invaders not only displace native flora but also disrupt local wildlife that depends on indigenous plants for food and shelter.
Moving to a different region, the Australian Outback presents another compelling scenario where environmental stressors impact local flora. Prolonged droughts and frequent wildfires, exacerbated by climate change, have severely affected native plant communities. The iconic Eucalyptus trees, which are well-adapted to occasional fires, are now experiencing fire frequencies that do not allow sufficient time for recovery. Research conducted in these areas shows a troubling decline in Eucalyptus populations, leading to less biodiverse ecosystems and altered soil chemistry.
Moreover, aquatic environments are not exempt from these pressures. Freshwater bodies near industrial zones demonstrate drastic transformations due to chemical runoff and thermal pollution. For instance, studies around the Great Lakes in North America reveal that elevated nutrient loads from agricultural runoff promote excessive algal blooms which subsequently lead to hypoxic conditions fatal to aquatic plants. Species such as wild rice once abundant along the shores of these lakes are now scarce due to suffocating algae cover and sedimentation changes.
In tropical regions like the Amazon Rainforest, deforestation is a predominant stressor with far-reaching consequences on vegetation. The removal of trees for agriculture or logging disrupts microclimates previously regulated by forest cover resulting in drier conditions unsuitable for many tropical species. Research highlights dramatic reductions in biodiversity as well as alterations in forest structure and function-affecting everything from seed dispersal mechanisms to soil fertility.
These case studies underscore a critical narrative: local flora worldwide is undergoing rapid changes due primarily to human-induced environmental stressors. Each example paints a part of a larger picture illustrating how interconnected and sensitive our ecosystems are. Protecting these natural habitats is no longer merely an option but a necessity for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance crucial for all life forms including humans.
As we continue examining and understanding these transformations through scientific research and observation, it becomes increasingly clear that proactive global conservation strategies are essential to mitigate adverse effects on vegetation caused by environmental stressors-ensuring a greener future where both humanity and nature can thrive.
The analysis of the long-term effects on ecosystem services provided by vegetation is critical in understanding the broader impacts that environmental changes, land use practices, and policy decisions have on surrounding vegetation. Vegetation plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and supporting various ecosystem services that are essential for human well-being and biodiversity conservation.
Ecosystem services provided by vegetation include air quality improvement, climate regulation, water purification, soil stabilization, and habitat provision for wildlife. These services are integral to the health of our planet and contribute significantly to our economy. However, these benefits are often compromised by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural expansion.
Over time, the impact on surrounding vegetation can lead to significant changes in ecosystem functionality. For instance, deforestation not only leads to a reduction in carbon storage capacity but also affects local climate conditions and disrupts precipitation patterns. This can have profound long-term effects on both local and global scales.
Urbanization replaces natural landscapes with impervious surfaces which drastically reduces the area available for healthy vegetation. The heat island effect commonly associated with urban areas is exacerbated by the loss of trees which normally help cool the environment through transpiration. Additionally, pollution from urban settings can degrade vegetation quality and limit its ability to provide essential ecosystem services.
Agricultural practices often involve the clearing of large areas of natural vegetation to make way for mono-crops. This not only reduces biodiversity but also impacts soil health and stability. The loss of root systems due to reduced vegetative cover can lead to higher rates of soil erosion and decreased fertility over time.
To mitigate these impacts, it is crucial to implement sustainable land management practices that promote conservation while still meeting human needs. Protecting existing vegetative cover and restoring degraded areas can enhance ecosystem resilience. This might involve reforestation or afforestation efforts where appropriate or integrating green infrastructure into urban planning to ensure sufficient vegetative presence in cities.
Monitoring changes in vegetation through remote sensing technology or field surveys helps keep track of how ecosystems respond over time to different stressors or conservation efforts. Such data are invaluable for adjusting management strategies effectively based on empirical evidence rather than assumptions.
In conclusion, assessing the long-term effects on ecosystem services provided by surrounding vegetation requires an integrated approach that considers ecological dynamics along with socio-economic factors influencing land use patterns. By prioritizing ecosystem health through sustainable practice implementations across various sectors—be it urban planning, forestry, or agriculture—we can safeguard these vital resources thus ensuring their availability for future generations while maintaining ecological balance.
The impact of construction and development projects on surrounding vegetation is a critical environmental issue. Vegetation plays an essential role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting biodiversity, and providing services such as air purification, climate regulation, and erosion control. As such, it's vital to implement strategies that mitigate negative impacts on these green assets during development projects.
One effective strategy for mitigating the impact on surrounding vegetation involves careful planning and site assessment before beginning any construction activity. This means conducting thorough environmental impact assessments (EIAs) to understand the extent of potential damage and exploring alternative project designs that minimize land disturbance. Planners should aim to retain native plants and trees as much as possible since these species are adapted to the local environment and support wildlife.
Another critical strategy is the implementation of buffer zones. Buffer zones are areas of natural land left undeveloped around the perimeter of a project site. These zones help protect the core areas of vegetation from disturbances such as dust, noise, and chemical runoff from construction sites. They also provide habitat for wildlife displaced by the development, helping maintain biodiversity.
In instances where removal of vegetation is unavoidable, it is important to plan for compensatory reforestation or replanting. This entails not only replacing trees that were cut down but ensuring these plants are native species that can thrive in their respective environments. Additionally, special care should be given to the timing of such activities; planting should ideally be done during seasons that favor plant growth to enhance survival rates.
Employing modern construction techniques can also significantly reduce the footprint on surrounding vegetation. Techniques like precision land grading help avoid unnecessary soil disturbance. Similarly, using construction equipment fitted with features designed to limit environmental damage - such as silt fences or sediment basins - helps prevent soil erosion and protects water quality in nearby streams and rivers which indirectly benefits vegetation health.
Lastly, ongoing monitoring during and after construction ensures that mitigation measures are effective and allows for adjustments if negative impacts on surrounding vegetation are detected. This can include regular surveys by ecologists or using technology like drones for aerial monitoring.
Implementing these strategies requires a commitment from all stakeholders involved in a project - from planners and developers to local government bodies - ensuring that they prioritize ecological considerations alongside economic or infrastructural objectives. By adopting these methods responsibly, we can substantially reduce our ecological footprint while still achieving development goals – essentially striking a delicate balance between progress and preservation.
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËrˈbÉ”Ër-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Lithia Springs may refer to:
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÎνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÏλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
cite book
cite journal
The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
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