Noise pollution, often overlooked as a minor irritant, has emerged as a significant environmental health risk with the capacity to disrupt not only the tranquility of our surroundings but also our physical and mental well-being. This essay explores the multifaceted impacts of noise pollution on human health, including hearing loss, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular issues, stress-related illnesses, and mental health problems.
Hearing loss is one of the most direct and immediate effects of noise pollution. Prolonged exposure to high decibel levels can damage the delicate hair cells in the inner ear that are essential for transmitting sound signals to the brain. Industries, heavy machinery, traffic, and even loud music can emit sounds intense enough to lead to temporary or even permanent hearing impairment. Notably, once these hair cells are damaged, they do not regenerate, underscoring the importance of managing noise levels in our environments.
Sleep disturbances are another common consequence of excessive noise. The presence of constant or sudden loud noises can interrupt sleep patterns and reduce sleep quality. This disruption not only leads to fatigue but also affects cognitive function, mood regulation, and overall quality of life. Chronic sleep deprivation has been linked with increased risks of serious health conditions such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease and decreased immune function.
The impact of noise pollution extends significantly into cardiovascular health. Studies have shown that prolonged exposure to elevated noise levels can lead to higher blood pressure and increased heart rate; chronic exposure exacerbates these effects potentially leading to cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and ischemic heart disease. Noise acts as a stressor activating the autonomic nervous system and endocrine responses which play a role in these cardiovascular changes.
From a psychological perspective, continuous noise exposure is associated with increased stress levels. The body's response to persistent noise includes releasing stress hormones like cortisol which over time can lead to stress-related illnesses such as anxiety disorders and depression. Furthermore, there is an observable link between high levels of environmental noise and mental health issues; persistent noise serves as an intrusive stimulus that can exacerbate symptoms in individuals already vulnerable to mental health disorders.
Finally yet importantly is how all these physiological disruptions compound into broader social implications-noise pollution affects daily functioning and social interactions which further influence overall mental wellbeing.
In conclusion, while often underestimated in its severity, noise pollution poses a real threat not just to our auditory faculties but encompasses broader physiological and psychological domains impacting cardiovascular systems sleep patterns stress responses ultimately affecting our overall quality of life It is critical therefore that we adopt stringent regulations manage personal exposures promote public awareness about potential risks associated with excessive environmental noises safeguarding both individual community health against this pervasive pollutant
Noise pollution, often an overlooked environmental issue, significantly impacts wildlife and ecosystems across the globe. The sources of noise pollution are many, including urban development, transportation networks such as roads, railways and airports, and industrial activities. These noises disrupt the natural soundscape and pose a myriad of challenges to animal species that rely on sound for communication, navigation, predator-prevention, and mating.
One of the primary ways in which noise pollution affects wildlife is through altered behavior patterns. Animals exposed to constant noise may experience stress or confusion leading to inefficient foraging and compromised predator awareness. For instance, studies have shown that birds living in noisy areas change their singing patterns and times. These alterations can reduce their effectiveness in communicating with potential mates or rivals, thereby affecting their reproductive success.
Communication among animals is crucial for survival and reproduction. Many species use sound cues to locate each other during mating seasons or to coordinate within groups. Excessive noise can mask these signals, making it difficult for animals to find mates or communicate effectively within their social groups. This disruption can lead to decreased mating success and lower survival rates for offspring.
Furthermore, chronic exposure to loud environments can cause hearing loss in some species. Just like humans, animals with diminished hearing cannot detect approaching predators or communicate with their peers efficiently. Such sensory impairment not only reduces individual fitness but also affects the population dynamics of certain species.
The impact of noise pollution extends into aquatic ecosystems as well. Marine life, including whales and dolphins who rely heavily on echolocation to navigate and hunt in the ocean's murky depths suffer when their acoustic environment is filled with anthropogenic sounds from ships and submarine sonars. These noises interfere with their ability to detect prey distance or even communicate distress signals amongst each other which could be crucial for their survival.
Reproductive success is another crucial aspect taking a hit due to noise pollution. For example, frogs need quiet ponds where they can call out to attract mates; however, traffic noise nearby can drown out these calls leading to lower reproduction rates. Similarly, nesting birds may abandon their sites if they're too noisy which again disrupts reproduction cycles.
Ultimately, all these factors contribute negatively towards survival rates of various species across different ecosystems impacted by noise pollution. As animal populations decline or shift behaviorally and geographically due to this disturbance in their natural living conditions it cascades into broader ecosystem imbalances affecting biodiversity at large.
Given the extensive reach of human-induced noise today it's imperative that we seek methods both technologically innovative as well as policy-driven that will mitigate sound emissions particularly around critical habitats ensuring that our co-inhabitants on this planet do not just survive but thrive despite our shared spaces.
Noise pollution, often an overlooked environmental hazard, is increasingly recognized for its severe implications on human health and well-being. Consequently, there is a variety of legal regulations and standards set both at international and national levels to manage and mitigate noise in the environment. These legal frameworks aim to protect communities from the adverse effects of noise pollution, which include hearing loss, disturbance of sleep, cardiovascular issues, and overall deterioration in quality of life.
Internationally, noise control laws vary significantly but generally focus on setting permissible limits on noise production, particularly in sensitive areas such as residential zones, hospitals, and schools. In the European Union (EU), for instance, the Environmental Noise Directive aims to identify noise sources and take necessary actions to reduce noise levels effectively. This directive mandates member states to create strategic noise maps for major cities and transport networks and develop action plans to reduce noise exposure based on these maps.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) historically played a significant role in regulating environmental noise after the inception of the Noise Control Act of 1972. Although federal enforcement of this act has decreased due to funding limitations starting in 1981 with much responsibility shifted to state and local governments, it laid down fundamental structures for evaluating and controlling environmental noise. The act also led to establishing specific standards for product noise emissions such as motor vehicles and construction equipment.
States within the U.S., like California and New York, have established their comprehensive sets of regulations that supplement federal guidelines. California's Title 24 Building Standards Code includes provisions that require buildings to have adequate insulation against external noise-particularly relevant in urban areas with dense traffic.
Beyond legislative measures, other strategies such as public awareness campaigns about the impacts of noise pollution and promoting quieter technology in industries contribute towards effective control over time. Additionally, innovations such as soundproofing materials in construction or quieter engine designs highlight how regulation can spur technological advancements that align economic development with environmental stewardship.
It's clear that while substantial progress has been made worldwide concerning legislation against excessive noise exposure from industrial activities or transports like railway systems or airports; continuous monitoring, stringent enforcement of existing laws along with new research into effective control technologies remain crucial. As urbanization continues globally at an unprecedented rate, robust regulatory frameworks will be more important than ever to ensure that cities can grow sustainably without sacrificing public health or ecological balance due to unmanaged noise levels.
Noise pollution has become an increasing concern in our modern world, impacting not only environmental health but also human well-being. It arises from various sources including industrial operations, vehicular traffic, and everyday human activities. The adverse effects range from hearing loss and sleep disruption to more severe issues like cardiovascular diseases and cognitive impairment. Fortunately, technological advancements are being developed and implemented to mitigate this pervasive problem. This essay explores some of these innovative solutions such as soundproofing materials, noise barriers, low-noise road surfaces, and quieter machinery designs.
One of the primary methods for controlling noise at its source is through the development of quieter machinery designs. Industries have been focusing on redesigning equipment to operate with less noise while maintaining efficiency. For example, newer models of air conditioners, power tools, and household appliances now come with built-in features aimed at reducing operational sounds. These include specialized motor systems and vibration dampening technologies that significantly lower the decibel levels emitted during use.
In addition to quieter machinery, soundproofing materials play a crucial role in reducing indoor noise pollution. These materials are designed to absorb or block sound waves, thereby preventing them from spreading into wider environments. Modern soundproofing materials can be found in various forms such as acoustic panels, foam insulation, and double-glazed windows. They are widely used in residential buildings, commercial spaces like theaters and recording studios, and even in automotive interiors to enhance comfort by reducing road noise.
Another effective solution for combating noise pollution is the installation of noise barriers along busy roadsides or around noisy industrial areas. These barriers are typically made from high-density materials that can deflect or absorb sound waves effectively. Concrete is a common choice due to its density and durability; however, recent innovations have introduced other materials like transparent acrylics or metal with perforated patterns that serve both aesthetic purposes and functional efficiency.
The construction industry has also seen significant advancements with the introduction of low-noise road surfaces designed to reduce traffic noise at its origin. These specialized surfaces are engineered using fine aggregates mixed into the asphalt which contributes to a smoother tire-road interaction hence generating less noise compared to traditional coarse-grained asphalt pavements.
Collectively these technological solutions represent a comprehensive approach toward addressing noise pollution across multiple fronts—from direct source reduction techniques through quieter machinery designs to control measures like soundproofing installations and strategic barrier placements. As urbanization continues to expand globally these innovations not only contribute towards creating quieter environments but also underscore our ability to adapt technology for public health preservation amidst progressing modern challenges.
These efforts reflect a growing recognition of the importance of sustainable living practices where technology serves as a vital tool in enhancing life quality without compromising the environment or human health.
Noise pollution, often an overlooked environmental stressor, can disrupt daily life and significantly affect health and wellbeing. Addressing this issue requires concerted community involvement and public awareness campaigns to educate individuals about its impacts and encourage actions that mitigate its effects. There are several exemplary initiatives across the globe where communities have taken proactive steps to tackle noise pollution effectively.
One notable example is the Quiet Mark certification program in the UK. This initiative awards a Quiet Mark to products and appliances that produce lower levels of sound, thus encouraging manufacturers to design quieter equipment. Public awareness about these options allows consumers to make informed choices, thereby indirectly reducing noise pollution at home and in public spaces.
In New York City, the "Silent Night" project was launched as a part of a broader noise reduction campaign by the Department of Environmental Protection. The project focuses on mitigating nighttime noise particularly from bars, clubs, and social venues – typically heavy contributors to urban noise levels. By enforcing stricter noise control laws and raising awareness amongst business owners through educational seminars, the city sees improved compliance with noise regulations which enhances the quality of life for its residents.
Similarly, schools have played a pivotal role in educating younger generations about the importance of sound ecology. For instance, certain schools in India have integrated lessons on sound pollution into their environmental science curriculum. Students learn not only about the sources and effects of noise pollution but also engage in projects that involve measuring sound levels around their homes and schools using decibel meters. These educational activities empower students with knowledge and tools to advocate for quieter surroundings.
Community-led initiatives also demonstrate effective strategies for raising public awareness about noise pollution. In Amsterdam, neighborhood associations organize 'Quiet Nights' where residents collectively agree to reduce all loud activities for certain nights during the week. This not only provides immediate relief from incessant noise but also builds community spirit and cooperation towards a common goal.
Another innovative approach is seen through mobile apps developed by technology enthusiasts who aim to map out noise pollution levels in various cities. Apps like ‘WideNoise' allow users to record decibel levels at different locations which are then uploaded onto an online map accessible by anyone using the app. This data helps identify hotspots of noise pollution and fosters more targeted local government interventions.
Furthermore, community radio stations have been instrumental in spreading awareness on how individuals can contribute to reducing their auditory footprint on the environment. These stations broadcast practical tips such as maintaining vehicles properly to reduce engine sounds, using earplugs when exposed to high decibels at work or events, planning quieter routes for travel, among others.
Collectively, these examples highlight how community involvement coupled with targeted public awareness campaigns can effectively address issues related to noise pollution. By fostering an informed citizenry that recognizes their role in mitigating this global concern, we pave the way towards healthier living environments less burdened by harmful noises.
Noise pollution, often an overlooked environmental hazard, significantly impacts human health and wildlife, necessitating effective management strategies and continuous research. Urbanization and technological advancements have led to increased ambient noise levels; however, the challenge persists in balancing development with noise mitigation. This essay explores the ongoing challenges in managing noise pollution and highlights potential areas for future research, particularly focusing on urban planning and the development of quieter technologies.
One of the primary challenges in managing noise pollution is the integration of sound management strategies within urban planning processes. Urban areas are dynamic environments where residential spaces often coexist with industrial zones and transportation networks, making them hotspots for noise pollution. Effective urban planning must incorporate predictive modeling tools that can assess potential noise impact areas and propose zoning regulations that mitigate noise exposure to residential communities. Research is needed to develop comprehensive models that accurately predict long-term noise patterns considering urban growth trajectories.
Moreover, there is a pressing need for policies that enforce stricter noise standards across cities globally. Implementing such policies requires robust monitoring systems capable of tracking real-time noise levels and identifying sources promptly. Future research should focus on enhancing sensor technologies and developing integrated data platforms that facilitate efficient noise monitoring and management in urban environments.
Another significant area requiring attention is the development of quieter technologies in industries traditionally known for high decibel outputs, such as construction, transportation, and manufacturing. While some progress has been made in designing quieter machinery and vehicles, substantial research is required to innovate technologies that do not compromise efficiency or increase operational costs. Electric vehicles (EVs), for instance, offer a reduction in engine noise compared to conventional vehicles but introduce new sounds which require evaluation for potential health impacts.
Public awareness about the effects of noise pollution also presents a challenge. The general populace may not perceive noise at the same threat level as other pollutants like air or water pollution. Educational programs highlighting the risks associated with prolonged exposure to high decibel levels could drive community engagement and support for stricter regulations. Research into effective communication strategies that resonate with different demographics could amplify efforts towards public consciousness about this issue.
Furthermore, considering the global nature of this problem, international collaboration is crucial in establishing universal standards for maximum permissible sound levels across different settings—residential, commercial, industrial—and ensuring these standards consider both human health impacts and ecological consequences.
In conclusion, effectively managing noise pollution requires an interdisciplinary approach encompassing robust urban planning methodologies incorporating advanced predictive tools; innovative technological solutions minimizing operational noises; stringent regulatory frameworks supported by precise monitoring systems; focused public education campaigns; and strong international cooperation creating coherent global standards. Future research should prioritize these dimensions to pave way toward quieter cities conducive to healthier lives and more sustainable ecosystems.
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËrˈbÉ”Ër-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÎνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÏλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
cite book
cite journal
The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
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