Steps for protecting your ATV from saltwater corrosion

Steps for protecting your ATV from saltwater corrosion

Sure, heres an essay on steps for protecting your ATV from saltwater corrosion, written in a human-like style:


Chain and belt maintenance extends drivetrain life polaris atv ultimate series- ready pack North Carolina.

When it comes to enjoying the great outdoors, ATVs (All-Terrain Vehicles) are a fantastic way to explore rugged terrains, sandy beaches, and even coastal trails. However, if youre riding your ATV near saltwater, whether its the ocean, a saltwater lake, or even just salty air, you need to be aware of the potential for corrosion. Saltwater is highly corrosive and can wreak havoc on your ATVs components if not properly managed. Here are some practical steps to protect your ATV from saltwater corrosion.


1. Rinse Immediately After Use


The most crucial step in protecting your ATV from saltwater corrosion is to rinse it thoroughly with fresh water as soon as possible after exposure to saltwater. Salt crystals can form on the surface of your ATV and begin corroding metal parts almost immediately. Use a hose to spray down the entire vehicle, paying special attention to areas where salt can accumulate, such as the undercarriage, wheel wells, and any crevices. If fresh water isn't available right away, at least try to wipe down the ATV with a damp cloth to remove as much salt as possible.


2. Use Corrosion-Resistant Coatings


Applying a corrosion-resistant coating to your ATV can provide an extra layer of protection. There are various products available on the market specifically designed for this purpose. Look for coatings that are meant for off-road vehicles and offer long-lasting protection against salt, moisture, and other corrosive elements. These coatings can be sprayed or brushed onto the ATV's frame, engine, and other metal parts. Be sure to follow the manufacturer's instructions for application and curing times.


3. Regularly Inspect and Maintain


Make it a habit to regularly inspect your ATV for signs of corrosion. Check the frame, bolts, nuts, and any other metal components for rust or pitting. Early detection can save you from more extensive and costly repairs down the line. If you notice any corrosion, clean the affected area with a wire brush or sandpaper to remove the rust, then apply a rust converter or touch-up paint to prevent further damage.


4. Keep It Covered


When your ATV isn't in use, especially if you live in a coastal area, consider keeping it covered. A quality ATV cover can protect your vehicle from direct exposure to saltwater spray, humidity, and other environmental factors that contribute to corrosion. Ensure the cover is made from a breathable material to allow moisture to escape, preventing the buildup of condensation underneath.


5. Lubricate Moving Parts


Saltwater can accelerate the wear and tear on moving parts by causing them to seize up. Regularly lubricate all moving parts, including hinges, joints, and any other areas where metal rubs against metal. Use a marine-grade lubricant if possible, as it is designed to withstand the harsh conditions associated with saltwater environments.


6. Store Indoors If Possible


If you have the option, store your ATV indoors rather than leaving it outside where it's exposed to the elements. A garage or shed provides a controlled environment that can significantly reduce the risk of corrosion. If indoor storage isn't feasible, at least try to park your ATV in a shaded area to minimize exposure to direct sunlight, which can exacerbate corrosion.


7. Use Salt-Resistant Materials


When replacing parts or accessories on your ATV, opt for salt-resistant materials whenever possible. Stainless steel, for example, is much more resistant to corrosion than regular steel. Similarly, choose salt-resistant paints and coatings for any customizations or repairs.


Conclusion


Protecting your ATV from saltwater corrosion requires a combination of immediate action, regular maintenance, and the use of specialized products. By rinsing your ATV after exposure to saltwater, applying corrosion-resistant coatings, inspecting for signs of corrosion, keeping it covered, lubricating moving parts, storing it indoors if possible, and using salt-resistant materials, you can significantly extend the life of your ATV and ensure it remains in top condition for years to come. With these steps, you can continue to enjoy your adventures without worrying about the damaging effects of saltwater corrosion.

Citations and other links

Campagna T-Rex
1932 Morgan Aero 2-Seater Sports
Fuldamobil three-wheeler (Postwar-era Germany)
Tricycle truck in Poland (Gorzów Wlkp)
Trihawk, a tadpole-type trike manufactured in California, United States during the 1980s

A three-wheeler is a vehicle with three wheels. Some are motorized tricycles, which may be legally classed as motorcycles, while others are tricycles without a motor, some of which are human-powered vehicles and animal-powered vehicles.

Overview

[edit]

Many three-wheelers which exist in the form of motorcycle-based machines are often called trikes and often have the front single wheel and mechanics similar to that of a motorcycle and the rear axle similar to that of a car. Often such vehicles are owner-constructed using a portion of a rear-engine, rear-drive Volkswagen Beetle in combination with a motorcycle front end. Other trikes include All-terrain vehicles that are specially constructed for off-road use.

Three-wheelers can have either one wheel at the back and two at the front (2F1R), (for example: Morgan Motor Company) or one wheel at the front and two at the back (1F2R) (such as the Reliant Robin). Due to better safety when braking, an increasingly popular form is the front-steering "tadpole" or "reverse trike" sometimes with front drive but usually with rear drive. A variant on the 'one at the front' layout was the Scott Sociable, which resembled a four-wheeler with a front wheel missing.[1]

Three-wheelers, including some cyclecars, bubble cars and microcars, are built for economic and legal reasons: in the UK for tax advantages, or in the US to take advantage of lower safety regulations, being classed as motorcycles. As a result of their light construction and potential better streamlining, three-wheeled cars are usually less expensive to operate.[citation needed]

Some inexpensive three-wheelers have been designed specifically to improve mobility for disabled people.[2]

Three-wheeler transport vehicles known as auto rickshaws are a common means of public transportation in many countries in the world, and are an essential form of urban transport in many developing countries such as India and the Philippines.

History

[edit]

Early automotive pioneer Karl Benz developed a number of three-wheeled models.[3] One of these, the Benz Patent Motorwagen,[4] is regarded as the first purpose-built automobile. It was made in 1885.

In 1896, John Henry Knight showed a tri-car at The Great Exhibition.[3]

In 1897, Edward Butler made the Butler Petrol Cycle, another three-wheeled car.

A Conti 6 hp Tri-car competed in (but did not complete) a 1907 Peking to Paris race sponsored by a French newspaper, Le Matin.[5]

Configurations

[edit]
Diagram comparing delta and tadpole layouts

Two front

[edit]

A configuration of two wheels in the front and one wheel at the back presents two advantages: it has improved aerodynamics, and that it readily enables the use of a small lightweight motorcycle powerplant and rear wheel. This approach was used by the Messerschmitt KR200 and BMW Isetta. Alternatively, a more conventional front-engine, front wheel drive layout as is common in four-wheeled cars can be used, with subsequent advantages for transversal stability (the center of mass is further to the front) and traction (two driven wheels instead of one). Some vehicles have a front engine driving the single rear wheel, similar to the rear engine driving the rear wheel. The wheel must support acceleration loads as well as lateral forces when in a turn, and loss of traction can be a challenge.

A new tadpole configuration has been proposed with a rear engine driving the front wheels. This concept (Dragonfly Three Wheeler[6]) claims both stability and traction (two driven wheels), as well as a unique driving experience.

With two wheels in the front (the "tadpole" form or "reverse trike") the vehicle is far more stable in braking turns, but remains more prone to overturning in normal turns compared to an equivalent four-wheeled vehicle, unless the center of mass is lower and/or further forward. Motorcycle-derived designs suffer from most of the weight being toward the rear of the vehicle.[citation needed]

For lower wind resistance (which increases fuel efficiency), a teardrop shape is often used.[citation needed] A teardrop is wide and round at the front, tapering at the back. The three-wheel configuration allows the two front wheels to create the wide round surface of the vehicle. The single rear wheel allows the vehicle to taper at the back. Examples include the Aptera (solar electric vehicle) and Myers Motors NmG.

Two rear

[edit]

Having one wheel in front and two in the rear for power reduces the cost of the steering mechanism but greatly decreases lateral stability when cornering while braking.

When the single wheel is in the front (the "delta" form, as in a child's pedal tricycle), the vehicle is inherently unstable in a braking turn, as the combined tipping forces at the center of mass from turning and braking can rapidly extend beyond the triangle formed by the contact patches of the wheels. This type, if not tipped, also has a greater tendency to spin out ("swap ends") when handled roughly.[citation needed]

Lateral stability[7]

[edit]

The disadvantage of a three-wheel configuration is that lateral stability is lower than with a four-wheeled vehicle.

With any vehicle, an imaginary line can be projected from the vehicles centre of mass to the ground, representing the force exerted on the vehicle by its mass. With the vehicle stationary, the line will be vertical. As the vehicle accelerates, that imaginary line tilts backward, remaining anchored to the centre of mass the point at which the line intersects the ground moves backward. As you brake it moves forward, with cornering it moves sideward. Should the point at which this line intersects the ground move outside of the boundary formed by connecting the tyre contact patches together (a rectangle for a four-wheeled car, or a triangle for a trike) then the vehicle will tip and eventually fall over. This is true for any vehicle.

With all vehicles it is critical that the vehicle should be engineered to slide before this point of instability is reached.

This can be achieved in several ways:

  • by placing the center of mass closer to the ground
  • by placing the center of mass closer to the axle with two wheels (for three wheelers)
  • by increasing the track width
  • by limiting the grip provided by the tyres, such that the vehicle loses adhesion before it starts to tip.
  • By tilting some or all of the vehicle as it corners.

In the case of a three-wheeled ATV, tipping may be avoided by the rider leaning into turns.

Tilting option

[edit]
Tripendo recumbent tricycle, a tilting three-wheeler
Vandenbrink Carver

To improve stability some three-wheelers are designed to tilt while cornering like a motorcyclist would do. The tilt may be controlled manually, mechanically or by computer.

A tilting three-wheeler's body or wheels, or both, tilt in the direction of the turn. Such vehicles can corner safely even with a narrow track.

Some tilting three-wheelers could be considered to be forms of feet forward motorcycles or cabin motorcycles or both.

Electric three wheelers

[edit]

Battery-powered three wheelers

[edit]
Toyota i-Road, a three-wheeled battery powered personal mobility vehicle

Three-wheeled battery powered designs include:

  • Aptera (solar electric vehicle)
  • Arcimoto
  • CityEl
  • Commuter Cars Tango
  • Cree SAM
  • ElectraMeccanica SOLO
  • Myers Motors NmG (formerly Corbin Sparrow)
  • Nobe GT100
  • Toyota i-Road
  • Triac
  • Vanderhall Edison 2
  • ZAP Xebra
  • EWheels EW 36(mobility scooter)

Solar-powered three wheelers

[edit]

Here are three notable examples of solar-powered three wheelers; two race cars, the Infinium and the Sky Ace TIGA, and a vehicle planned for production, the Aptera.

Infinium, winner of 2010 American Solar Challenge

The Infinium, built by the University of Michigan Solar Car Team, came in 3rd place in the 2009 World Solar Challenge held in Australia, and won the 2010 American Solar Challenge.

Ashiya University's Sky Ace TIGA achieved 91.332 kilometres per hour (56.751 mph) at Shimojishima Airport, in Miyakojima, Okinawa, Japan, to win the Guinness World Record, on 20 August 2014.[8] It took the record from another three-wheeler, Sunswift IV, designed and built at the University of New South Wales in Australia,[9] by a margin of almost 3 km/h.

Solar panels on the hood, roof, dashboard and hatch of the Aptera EV

The Aptera solar electric vehicle[10] uses a tadpole layout and is being designed to have a top speed of over 100 mph. The Aptera uses 42 KW in-wheel electric motors[11] and can be ordered with two (front-wheel drive) or three (all-wheel drive) motors. The Aptera's roof and dashboard, and optionally its hood and hatch, are fitted with solar panels, with the full compliment being designed to add a range of up to 40 miles per day and 11,000 miles per year in the sunniest climates. First customer availability is planned for before the end of 2024.[12]

Steam-powered three wheelers

[edit]
Cugnot's fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris, France

The world's first full-size self-propelled land vehicle was a three-wheeler. French Army Captain Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's 1770 fardier à vapeur (steam dray), a steam tricycle with a top speed of around 3 km/h (2 mph), was intended for hauling artillery.[13]

Another of the earliest preserved examples is the Long steam tricycle, built by George A. Long around 1880 and patented in 1883,[14][15] now on display at the Smithsonian Institution.

 

Wind-powered three wheelers

[edit]

The Whike is a recumbent tricycle with a sail, made in the Netherlands.

All-terrain vehicles

[edit]
Honda, Suzuki and Yamaha all-terrain vehicles

Due to the incidence of injuries and deaths related to their use, a 10-year ban, entirely voluntary for manufacturers, was placed on the sale of new three-wheeled all-terrain vehicles in the United States in January 1988.[citation needed] More injuries were sustained by riders by not applying a proper riding technique, and lack of wearing proper safety gear such as helmets and riding boots. In a search conducted by the Consumer Product Safety Commission, it was determined that "no inherent flaw was found in the three wheel design".[citation needed]

Registration

[edit]
Bond Bug at Silverstone

In the U.S, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration defines and regulates three-wheeled vehicles as motorcycles.[16] However, in 2015 a bill was introduced in Congress that would prevent some three wheeled vehicles from being classified as motorcycles in the United States, instead creating a new classification for "autocycles".[17][18]

Driver's license and registration requirements vary on a state-by-state basis. Some states require drivers of three wheeled vehicles to have a motorcycle license and register the vehicle as a motorcycle. Some states, including Virginia, Kansas, and Indiana, classify some three wheeled vehicles as autocycles. Virginia defines an autocycle as "a three-wheeled motor vehicle that has a steering wheel and seating that does not require the operator to straddle or sit astride and is manufactured to comply with federal safety requirements for motorcycles."[19] Indiana defines it as "a three (3) wheeled motor vehicle in which the operator and passenger ride in a completely or partially enclosed seating area that is equipped with:(1) a rollcage or roll hoops; (2) safety belts for each occupant; and (3) antilock brakes;and is designed to be controlled with a steering wheel and pedals."[20] In other jurisdictions, such as British Columbia, Canada, and Connecticut, a three-wheeled vehicle with an enclosed passenger compartment or partially enclosed seat is considered an automobile.[citation needed]

 

Examples

[edit]

Two front wheels

[edit]
Name Country Years manufactured Comments
Léon Bollée Voiturette France 1895–?  
TriPodCars[21] Tripod 1 Australia 2012–? 400 kg Reverse Trike, Bandit 1250, ZX14R (200+ hp) and EV
Berkeley Cars Berkeley T60 England 1959  
Egg Switzerland 1896–99  
Advance 6 hp air-cooled Tri Car and 9 hp water-cooled Tri Car[22] England 1902–12  
Humber Tricar[23][24] England 1904  
Riley Olympia Tricar[25] England 1904 [26]
Mars Carette[27] England 1904–05 Mars Motors Co existed in Finchley, London, White and Poppe water-cooled engine, Single-cylinder, 3.3 kW
Lagonda Tricar[28] England 1904–07 total production: 69 cars
Anglian England 1905–07  
Armadale England 1906–07  
Ranger Cub England 1970–1980 Reverse Trike/Tadpole, A-Series engine 848-1275cc
Morgan V-Twin and F-Series England 1911–39, 1932–52 Morgan Super Sports 2-Seater 1937
American Tri-Car United States 1912
Birmingham Small Arms Company Three Wheeler England 1929–36 1100cc engine[29]
Zaschka Germany 1929 Folding three-wheeler: Zaschka Three-wheeler 1929
Dymaxion car United States 1933 Concept car designed by Buckminster Fuller
Mathis VEL 333 France 1946 3 seats, flat-twin front engine, aluminium body, production less than 10 units
Fend Flitzer Germany 1948 - 1951 1 seat, Messerschmitt kabinenroller precursor, production about 250 units
1951 Hoffmann Germany 1951 2 seats, aluminium body, engine mounted on the rear wheel steering pivot
Velorex Oskar and other models Czechoslovakia 1951–71 Originally with leather bodies
Isetta UK 1957–62 Three-wheeled version of the Isetta built in the UK to take advantage of tax and licensing regulations
Scootacar UK 1957–64  
Messerschmitt KR175 Germany 1953–55  
Messerschmitt KR200 Germany 1955–64  
Peel P50 Isle of Man 1963–64 Smallest production car ever built
HM Vehicles Free-way United States 1979–82  
Campagna T-Rex Canada 1996–present  
Malone Car Company F1000|Skunk SS|TAZR United Kingdom 1999–present High-power internal combustion and pure electric versions released November 2010
Cree SAM Switzerland 2001 Electric, only 80 produced
Myers Motors NmG ("No more Gas") United States 2006–present Single-occupant all-electric plug-in
BRP Can-Am Spyder RoadsterCan-Am Spyder Roadster Canada 2007–present The Can-Am Spyder is a three-wheeled motorcycle manufactured by Bombardier Recreational Products.
Brudeli 645L Norway 2008–  
Moonbeam United States 2008–present 100 mpg DIY, fabric-covered car based on parts from two Honda 150cc motorscooters[30]
Triac United States 2009–2011 Electric, never entered production
XR-3 Hybrid United States Plans–2008, Kit–2009 Front 3-cylinder diesel (125 mpg), rear electric 40 mile range (220 mpg when used as a hybrid)[31]
Aptera (solar electric vehicle) United States 2022 planned Solar-powered Electric
Triton Trike United States 2000–present Gas-powered, 42+ mpg, front-wheel drive, custom builds and kits available
Nobe GT100 Estonia & United States 2021 planned Electric, powered at all 3 wheels
Polaris Slingshot United States 2015–present  
Vanderhall Laguna Roadster United States 2016–2018 Exotic Auto-cycle, mono-aluminum chassis, carbon fiber body, 200 HP, 1550 pounds dry weight, side-by-side seating, fwd. 1.4 liter turbo GM power plant. 6 speed Automatic with paddle shift option. Manufactured by Vanderhall Motor Works in Provo, Utah U.S.A
Vanderhall Venice United States 2017–present The mainstay of the Vanderhall line up, the Venice brings the soul of roadster motoring while extending effortless performance in kind.[32]
Vanderhall Carmel United States 2020–present The Vanderhall Carmel brings more luxury and convenience to the Carmel lineup. With provisions to accommodate a removable capshade, the Carmel promises additional class and comfort for your journey.[33]
Vanderhall Edison United States 2020–present The Edison2: A fully electric roadster that combines refined and eye-catching design while maintaining classic, elegant lines. Unplug and play has been redefined [34]
Elio Motors Shreveport, LA, United States Awaiting funding Two passenger fully enclosed cockpit with car controls
Girfalco Azkarra Canada 2017 All-electric two-passenger three-wheeled vehicle, possibly the quickest three-wheeler
Go3Wheeler United States 2014 single person three wheeler
Corbin Sparrow      
Piaggio MP3      
Tri-Magnum United States   Tilting 3-wheeler capable of seating two people.[35]
Volkswagen GX3      
Morgan 3-Wheeler England 2012–present The power train is a 1983cc ‘V-twin’ fuel injected engine mated to a Mazda 5 speed (and reverse) gearbox
Fuel Vapours Alé Canada 2005–present Prototype. Gets 92 mpg.
Arcimoto FUV United States 2019–present Two passenger all-electric, 102 mile range City
Fiberfab Scarab STM United States 1976 Kit car with canopy door manufactured by Fiberfab
Bricklin 3EV United States Planned Two passenger electric vehicle from Malcolm Bricklin.[36]

Two rear wheels

[edit]
Name Country Years manufactured Comments
Apino Brazil unknown Mini Truck
Benz Patent Motorwagen Germany 1886–93  
Eco-Fueler USA 2009–2011 2 seater built in Oregon.[37]
La Va Bon Train France 1904–10 50–100 believed built
Davis D-2 Divan United States 1947–48 about 13–17 built, including the 494, a Jeep-like military vehicle[38]
Scammell Scarab England 1948–67  
Autoette United States 1948–70  
Daihatsu Bee Japan 1951–1952  
Daihatsu Midget Japan 1957–72  
Mazda T-2000 Japan 1957–74  
Mazda K360 Japan 1959–69  
Mazda T600 Japan 1959–71  
Kia K-360 South Korea 1962–1973 Kia's first truck (OEM Mazda K-360)
Kia T-1500 South Korea 1963–? 1484 cc, 60 hp, four cylinder and a maximum load of 1.5 tons. (OEM Mazda T-1500)
Kia T-600 South Korea 1969–1974 577cc, 20 HP and 500 kg load. Top speed of 75 km/h. 7726 produced (OEM Mazda T-600)
Kia T-2000 South Korea 1967–1981 1985 cc, 81 hp, four cylinder and a maximum load of 2 tons. 15952 produced (OEM Mazda T-2000)
Piaggio Ape Italy 1948–present
Electra-King United States 1964?–1980s? Two-seater electric car[39]
Bond 875 England 1965–70  
Bond Bug England 1970–74  
Reliant Robin England 1973–81, 1989–2002  
Reliant Regal England 1953–1973 An example of this vehicle is the iconic van belonging to Del Boy and Rodney Trotter in the long-running BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, though it is often incorrectly referred to as a Reliant Robin.
GM Lean Machine[40][41] United States 1980s Tilt, concept car[42]
TriVette United States 1974–1976
Twike Germany 1995–present Electric-human-power hybrid, developed in Switzerland
ZAP Xebra United States 2006–2009 electric power
eTuk United States 2014– re-designed tuk tuk for the US Market, including an all-electric motor[43]
Snyder ST600-c United States 2011–2012 Imported by Snyder Technologies / Wildfire Motors, this is a rebrand of the Fulu Motors 富路金骏马, Fulu Jinjunma in English. Referred to as the 09 golden horse internally.
Carver Netherlands 2007–2009 Tilt
CityEl Denmark   Mini-El, City-El
CLEVER      
Harley-Davidson
Servi-Car
United States 1932-1973[44]  
Harley-Davidson
Tri Glide
United States since 2009  

See also

[edit]
  • Four-wheeler

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Scott Sociable". Retrieved 2015-10-05.
  2. ^ StaÅ„ko-PajÄ…k, K; Bursa, B; SeÅ„ko, J; Detka, T; Korczak, S; Nowak, R; PopioÅ‚ek, K; Lisiecki, J; Paczkowski, A (2022-07-01). "A three-wheeled vehicle for the disabled people". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 1247 (1): 012039. Bibcode:2022MS&E.1247a2039S. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1247/1/012039. ISSN 1757-8981. S2CID 250504234.
  3. ^ a b Elvis Payne (2012). "The History of the 3-Wheeled Vehicle". 3-wheelers.com. Retrieved 2012-01-03.
  4. ^ Chris Chong (July 2, 2006). "History in its magnificence". star-motoring.com. Archived from the original on 2007-10-24. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  5. ^ "History". pekingparisraid.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-08-26. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  6. ^ Design. "Dragonfly three wheeler". www.dragonflythreewheeler.com. Retrieved 2021-06-09.
  7. ^ Riley, Robert Q. "The Dynamic Stability of Three-Wheeled Vehicles in Automotive-Type Applications". Robert Q. Riley Enterprises. Archived from the original on 2020-09-22.
  8. ^ "Fastest solar-powered vehicle". Guinness World Records.
  9. ^ "Aussie car breaks a world speed record". AAP. 7 January 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-07.
  10. ^ Voelcker, John (2019-08-28). "Exclusive: 3-Wheeled Aptera Reboots as World's Most Efficient Electric Car". IEEE Spectrum. IEEE. Retrieved 2020-01-20.
  11. ^ "Aptera solar EV Launch Edition: 400-mile range, no Supercharging yet". Green Car Reports. 2023-01-22. Retrieved 2023-03-18.
  12. ^ Chris (2023-01-27). "Aptera Announces Accelerator Program to Kick Off Production Plan". Aptera. Retrieved 2023-02-24.
  13. ^ "Fardier de Cugnot". Archived from the original on July 16, 2013.
  14. ^ "1880 Long Steam Tricycle - Pictures". Remarkablecars.com. 2009-06-17. Retrieved 2010-07-29.[dead link]
  15. ^ "America on the Move | Long steam tricycle". Americanhistory.si.edu. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  16. ^ "Highway Safety - Title 23, United States Code, Chapter 4 and Related Highway Safety Provisions" (PDF). December 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2006. Retrieved 2015-10-05.
  17. ^ "Newly Introduced Federal Legislation Would Ensure That Three-Wheeled Automobiles Are Not Classified As Motorcycles". Motorcycle Law Group. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  18. ^ "S.685 - Autocycle Safety Act". Congress. 10 March 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  19. ^ Va. Code Ann. § 46.2-100 (West)
  20. ^ Ind. Code Ann. § 9-13-2-6.1 (West)
  21. ^ "Tri Pod Cars".
  22. ^ "Advance Fore-Cars and Tri-Cars". oakingtonplane.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-01-12. Retrieved 2008-01-23.
  23. ^ "British Motor Manufacturers (1894-1960) Humber". britishmm.co.uk. Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  24. ^ "Humber History". histomobile.com. Archived from the original on June 8, 2007. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  25. ^ "Rileys 1896 - 1939 The Pre-Nuffield Years". Rob's Riley Pages (ukonline.co.uk/rileyrob). Archived from the original on March 21, 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  26. ^ illustration Archived December 29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ "1904 Mars Carette - Franschhoek Motor Museum". 20 October 2017. Retrieved 2020-11-24.
  28. ^ "The History of Classic Cars: 1905 Lagonda Tricar". autoclassic.com. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  29. ^ Peter Bowler, president The BSAFWD Club. "image and description". Bsafwdc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  30. ^ Wilson, Mark (2006-09-24). "Moonbeam: 100mpg Homemade Car". Gizmodo.com. Retrieved 2015-10-05.
  31. ^ "XR3 Hybrid Personal Transit Vehicle: A 125 mpg Plug-In Hybrid Three Wheeler You Build From Plans". Rqriley.com. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  32. ^ "Venice". Vanderhall Motor Works. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
  33. ^ "Carmel". Vanderhall Motor Works. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
  34. ^ "Edison 2". Vanderhall Motor Works. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
  35. ^ "Project 32: A High-Performance Tilting Three-Wheel Vehicle". www.rqriley.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  36. ^ "Meet The Bricklin 3EV". www.vvcars.com.
  37. ^ "Eco-Fueler". www.eco-fueler.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  38. ^ Patton, Phil (September 24, 2009). "A Dreamer's Machine, More Promise Than Reality". The New York Times – via NYTimes.com.
  39. ^ Rob & Sharon McLellan. "advertising brochure". Mclellansautomotive.com. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  40. ^ "General Motors Three Wheeled Cars". GM's Lean Machine (3-wheelers.com/gmlean). Retrieved 2008-04-08.
  41. ^ "Lean Machines: Preliminary Investigation" (PDF). Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Berkeley (commutercars.com/downloads/studies/). Retrieved 2008-04-08.
  42. ^ "illustration". Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  43. ^ "eTuk USA". Retrieved 2014-07-01.
  44. ^ "Remembering the 1937 Harley-Davidson Servi-Car GE". March 2022.
[edit]
  • Complete A-Z list of three-wheelers since 1940

 

 

Four-stroke cycle used in gasoline/petrol engines: intake (1), compression (2), power (3), and exhaust (4). The right blue side is the intake port and the left brown side is the exhaust port. The cylinder wall is a thin sleeve surrounding the piston head which creates a space for the combustion of fuel and the genesis of mechanical energy.

A four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate strokes are termed:

  1. Intake: Also known as induction or suction. This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). In this stroke the intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing a partial vacuum (negative pressure) in the cylinder through its downward motion.
  2. Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, and ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage.
  3. Combustion: Also known as power or ignition. This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the compression stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in a gasoline engine) or by heat generated by high compression (diesel engines), forcefully returning the piston to B.D.C. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft.
  4. Exhaust: Also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston, once again, returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust port.

Four-stroke engines are the most common internal combustion engine design for motorized land transport,[1] being used in automobiles, trucks, diesel trains, light aircraft and motorcycles. The major alternative design is the two-stroke cycle.[1]

History

[edit]

Otto cycle

[edit]
An Otto Engine from 1880s US Manufacture

Nikolaus August Otto was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels, he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir. In 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower. The Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon.[2]

In testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861, Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge. In 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel mixture prior to ignition, but failed as that engine would run no more than a few minutes prior to its destruction. Many other engineers were trying to solve the problem, with no success.[2]

In 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie (NA Otto and Company). Otto and Cie succeeded in creating a successful atmospheric engine that same year.[2] The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, Germany in 1869, where the company was renamed to Deutz Gasmotorenfabrik AG (The Deutz Gas Engine Manufacturing Company).[2] In 1872, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design. Daimler was a gunsmith who had worked on the Lenoir engine. By 1876, Otto and Langen succeeded in creating the first internal combustion engine that compressed the fuel mixture prior to combustion for far higher efficiency than any engine created to this time.

Daimler and Maybach left their employ at Otto and Cie and developed the first high-speed Otto engine in 1883. In 1885, they produced the first automobile to be equipped with an Otto engine. The Daimler Reitwagen used a hot-tube ignition system and the fuel known as Ligroin to become the world's first vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine. It used a four-stroke engine based on Otto's design. The following year, Karl Benz produced a four-stroke engined automobile that is regarded as the first car.[3]

In 1884, Otto's company, then known as Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz (GFD), developed electric ignition and the carburetor. In 1890, Daimler and Maybach formed a company known as Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft. Today, that company is Daimler-Benz.

Atkinson cycle

[edit]
This 2004 Toyota Prius hybrid has an Atkinson-cycle engine as the petrol-electric hybrid engine
The Atkinson Gas Cycle

The Atkinson-cycle engine is a type of single stroke internal combustion engine invented by James Atkinson in 1882. The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at the expense of power density, and is used in some modern hybrid electric applications.

The original Atkinson-cycle piston engine allowed the intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes of the four-stroke cycle to occur in a single turn of the crankshaft and was designed to avoid infringing certain patents covering Otto-cycle engines.[4]

Due to the unique crankshaft design of the Atkinson, its expansion ratio can differ from its compression ratio and, with a power stroke longer than its compression stroke, the engine can achieve greater thermal efficiency than a traditional piston engine. While Atkinson's original design is no more than a historical curiosity, many modern engines use unconventional valve timing to produce the effect of a shorter compression stroke/longer power stroke, thus realizing the fuel economy improvements the Atkinson cycle can provide.[5]

Diesel cycle

[edit]
Audi Diesel R15 at Le Mans

The diesel engine is a technical refinement of the 1876 Otto-cycle engine. Where Otto had realized in 1861 that the efficiency of the engine could be increased by first compressing the fuel mixture prior to its ignition, Rudolf Diesel wanted to develop a more efficient type of engine that could run on much heavier fuel. The Lenoir, Otto Atmospheric, and Otto Compression engines (both 1861 and 1876) were designed to run on Illuminating Gas (coal gas). With the same motivation as Otto, Diesel wanted to create an engine that would give small industrial companies their own power source to enable them to compete against larger companies, and like Otto, to get away from the requirement to be tied to a municipal fuel supply.[citation needed] Like Otto, it took more than a decade to produce the high-compression engine that could self-ignite fuel sprayed into the cylinder. Diesel used an air spray combined with fuel in his first engine.

During initial development, one of the engines burst, nearly killing Diesel. He persisted, and finally created a successful engine in 1893. The high-compression engine, which ignites its fuel by the heat of compression, is now called the diesel engine, whether a four-stroke or two-stroke design.

The four-stroke diesel engine has been used in the majority of heavy-duty applications for many decades. It uses a heavy fuel containing more energy and requiring less refinement to produce. The most efficient Otto-cycle engines run near 30% thermal efficiency.[clarification needed]

Thermodynamic analysis

[edit]
The idealized four-stroke Otto cycle p-V diagram: the  intake (A)  stroke is performed by an isobaric expansion, followed by the  compression (B)  stroke, performed as an adiabatic compression. Through the combustion of fuel an isochoric process is produced, followed by an adiabatic expansion, characterizing the  power (C)  stroke. The cycle is closed by an isochoric process and an isobaric compression, characterizing the  exhaust (D)  stroke.

The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke and two-stroke cycles is not a simple task. However, the analysis can be simplified significantly if air standard assumptions[6] are utilized. The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the Otto cycle.

During normal operation of the engine, as the air/fuel mixture is being compressed, an electric spark is created to ignite the mixture. At low rpm this occurs close to TDC (Top Dead Centre). As engine rpm rises, the speed of the flame front does not change so the spark point is advanced earlier in the cycle to allow a greater proportion of the cycle for the charge to combust before the power stroke commences. This advantage is reflected in the various Otto engine designs; the atmospheric (non-compression) engine operates at 12% efficiency whereas the compressed-charge engine has an operating efficiency around 30%.

Fuel considerations

[edit]

A problem with compressed charge engines is that the temperature rise of the compressed charge can cause pre-ignition. If this occurs at the wrong time and is too energetic, it can damage the engine. Different fractions of petroleum have widely varying flash points (the temperatures at which the fuel may self-ignite). This must be taken into account in engine and fuel design.

The tendency for the compressed fuel mixture to ignite early is limited by the chemical composition of the fuel. There are several grades of fuel to accommodate differing performance levels of engines. The fuel is altered to change its self-ignition temperature. There are several ways to do this. As engines are designed with higher compression ratios the result is that pre-ignition is much more likely to occur since the fuel mixture is compressed to a higher temperature prior to deliberate ignition. The higher temperature more effectively evaporates fuels such as gasoline, which increases the efficiency of the compression engine. Higher compression ratios also mean that the distance that the piston can push to produce power is greater (which is called the expansion ratio).

The octane rating of a given fuel is a measure of the fuel's resistance to self-ignition. A fuel with a higher numerical octane rating allows for a higher compression ratio, which extracts more energy from the fuel and more effectively converts that energy into useful work while at the same time preventing engine damage from pre-ignition. High octane fuel is also more expensive.

Many modern four-stroke engines employ gasoline direct injection or GDI. In a gasoline direct-injected engine, the injector nozzle protrudes into the combustion chamber. The direct fuel injector injects gasoline under a very high pressure into the cylinder during the compression stroke, when the piston is closer to the top.[7]

Diesel engines by their nature do not have concerns with pre-ignition. They have a concern with whether or not combustion can be started. The description of how likely diesel fuel is to ignite is called the Cetane rating. Because diesel fuels are of low volatility, they can be very hard to start when cold. Various techniques are used to start a cold diesel engine, the most common being the use of a glow plug.

Design and engineering principles

[edit]

Power output limitations

[edit]
The four-stroke cycle
1=TDC
2=BDC
 A: Intake 
 B: Compression 
 C: Power 
 D: Exhaust 

The maximum amount of power generated by an engine is determined by the maximum amount of air ingested. The amount of power generated by a piston engine is related to its size (cylinder volume), whether it is a two-stroke engine or four-stroke design, volumetric efficiency, losses, air-to-fuel ratio, the calorific value of the fuel, oxygen content of the air and speed (RPM). The speed is ultimately limited by material strength and lubrication. Valves, pistons and connecting rods suffer severe acceleration forces. At high engine speed, physical breakage and piston ring flutter can occur, resulting in power loss or even engine destruction. Piston ring flutter occurs when the rings oscillate vertically within the piston grooves they reside in. Ring flutter compromises the seal between the ring and the cylinder wall, which causes a loss of cylinder pressure and power. If an engine spins too quickly, valve springs cannot act quickly enough to close the valves. This is commonly referred to as 'valve float', and it can result in piston to valve contact, severely damaging the engine. At high speeds the lubrication of piston cylinder wall interface tends to break down. This limits the piston speed for industrial engines to about 10 m/s.

Intake/exhaust port flow

[edit]

The output power of an engine is dependent on the ability of intake (air–fuel mixture) and exhaust matter to move quickly through valve ports, typically located in the cylinder head. To increase an engine's output power, irregularities in the intake and exhaust paths, such as casting flaws, can be removed, and, with the aid of an air flow bench, the radii of valve port turns and valve seat configuration can be modified to reduce resistance. This process is called porting, and it can be done by hand or with a CNC machine.

Waste heat recovery of an internal combustion engine

[edit]

An internal combustion engine is on average capable of converting only 40-45% of supplied energy into mechanical work. A large part of the waste energy is in the form of heat that is released to the environment through coolant, fins etc. If somehow waste heat could be captured and turned to mechanical energy, the engine's performance and/or fuel efficiency could be improved by improving the overall efficiency of the cycle. It has been found that even if 6% of the entirely wasted heat is recovered it can increase the engine efficiency greatly.[8]

Many methods have been devised in order to extract waste heat out of an engine exhaust and use it further to extract some useful work, decreasing the exhaust pollutants at the same time. Use of the Rankine Cycle, turbocharging and thermoelectric generation can be very useful as a waste heat recovery system.

Supercharging

[edit]

One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression device known as a supercharger, which can be powered by the engine crankshaft.

Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.

Turbocharging

[edit]

A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine. A turbocharger is incorporated into the exhaust system of a vehicle to make use of the expelled exhaust. It consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses the intake air, and the other side that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.

When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the small exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in a naturally aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the engine speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient to 'spool up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal into the intake manifold. Thus, additional power (and speed) is expelled through the function of this turbine.

Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust pressure that would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as turbo lag. The increased engine power is not immediately available due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin up the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power operation is reached. Another difficulty is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the mechanical parts of the engine.

Rod and piston-to-stroke ratio

[edit]

The rod-to-stroke ratio is the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the length of the piston stroke. A longer rod reduces sidewise pressure of the piston on the cylinder wall and the stress forces, increasing engine life. It also increases the cost and engine height and weight.

A "square engine" is an engine with a bore diameter equal to its stroke length. An engine where the bore diameter is larger than its stroke length is an oversquare engine, conversely, an engine with a bore diameter that is smaller than its stroke length is an undersquare engine.

Valve train

[edit]

The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of the crankshaft. It has a series of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve during the appropriate part of an intake or exhaust stroke. A tappet between valve and cam is a contact surface on which the cam slides to open the valve. Many engines use one or more camshafts "above" a row (or each row) of cylinders, as in the illustration, in which each cam directly actuates a valve through a flat tappet. In other engine designs the camshaft is in the crankcase, in which case each cam usually contacts a push rod, which contacts a rocker arm that opens a valve, or in case of a flathead engine a push rod is not necessary. The overhead cam design typically allows higher engine speeds because it provides the most direct path between cam and valve.

Valve clearance

[edit]

Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that ensures that the valve completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment, excessive clearance causes noise from the valve train. A too-small valve clearance can result in the valves not closing properly. This results in a loss of performance and possibly overheating of exhaust valves. Typically, the clearance must be readjusted each 20,000 miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.

Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for valve train component wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.

Energy balance

[edit]

Otto engines are about 30% efficient; in other words, 30% of the energy generated by combustion is converted into useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine, while the remainder being lost due to waste heat, friction and engine accessories.[9] There are a number of ways to recover some of the energy lost to waste heat. The use of a turbocharger in diesel engines is very effective by boosting incoming air pressure and in effect, provides the same increase in performance as having more displacement. The Mack Truck company, decades ago, developed a turbine system that converted waste heat into kinetic energy that it fed back into the engine's transmission. In 2005, BMW announced the development of the turbosteamer, a two-stage heat-recovery system similar to the Mack system that recovers 80% of the energy in the exhaust gas and raises the efficiency of an Otto engine by 15%.[10] By contrast, a six-stroke engine may reduce fuel consumption by as much as 40%.

Modern engines are often intentionally built to be slightly less efficient than they could otherwise be. This is necessary for emission controls such as exhaust gas recirculation and catalytic converters that reduce smog and other atmospheric pollutants. Reductions in efficiency may be counteracted with an engine control unit using lean burn techniques.[11]

In the United States, the Corporate Average Fuel Economy mandates that vehicles must achieve an average of 34.9 mpg‑US (6.7 L/100 km; 41.9 mpg‑imp) compared to the current standard of 25 mpg‑US (9.4 L/100 km; 30.0 mpg‑imp).[12] As automakers look to meet these standards by 2016, new ways of engineering the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) have to be considered. Some potential solutions to increase fuel efficiency to meet new mandates include firing after the piston is farthest from the crankshaft, known as top dead centre, and applying the Miller cycle. Together, this redesign could significantly reduce fuel consumption and NOx emissions.

 

Top dead center, before cycle begins 1 – Intake stroke 2 – Compression stroke
Starting position, intake stroke, and compression stroke.
Fuel ignites 3 – Power stroke 4 – Exhaust stroke
Ignition of fuel, power stroke, and exhaust stroke.

 

See also

[edit]
  • Atkinson cycle
  • Miller cycle
  • Humphrey pump
  • Desmodromic valve
  • History of the internal combustion engine
  • Napier Deltic
  • Poppet valve
  • Radial engine
  • Rotary engine
  • Six-stroke engine
  • Stirling engine
  • Stroke (engine)
    • Two- and four-stroke engines
    • Two-stroke engine
    • Five-stroke engine (uncommon)
    • Six-stroke engine

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "4-STROKE ENGINES: WHAT ARE THEY AND HOW DO THEY WORK?". UTI. 5 May 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d "125 Jahre Viertaktmotor" [125 Years of the Four Stroke Engine]. Oldtimer Club Nicolaus August Otto e.V. (in German). Germany. 2009. Archived from the original on 7 May 2011.
  3. ^ Ralph Stein (1967). The Automobile Book. Paul Hamlyn Ltd
  4. ^ US 367496, J. Atkinson, "Gas Engine", issued 2 August 1887 
  5. ^ "Auto Tech: Atkinson Cycle engines and Hybrids". Autos.ca. 14 July 2010. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
  6. ^ "Best Place for Engineering and Technology, Air Standard Assumptions". Archived from the original on 21 April 2011.
  7. ^ "Four-stroke engine: how it works, animation". testingautos.com. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
  8. ^ Sprouse III, Charles; Depcik, Christopher (1 March 2013). "Review of organic Rankine cycles for internal combustion engine exhaust waste heat recovery". Applied Thermal Engineering. 51 (1–2): 711–722. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.10.017.
  9. ^ Ferreira, Omar Campos (March 1998). "Efficiencies of Internal Combustion Engines". Economia & Energia (in Portuguese). Brasil. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
  10. ^ Neff, John (9 December 2005). "BMW Turbo Steamer Gets Hot and Goes". Autoblog. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
  11. ^ Faiz, Asif; Weaver, Christopher S.; Walsh, Michael P. (1996). Air pollution from motor vehicles: Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions. World Bank Publications. ISBN 9780821334447.
  12. ^ "Fuel Economy". US: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Retrieved 11 April 2016.

General sources

[edit]
  • Hardenberg, Horst O. (1999). The Middle Ages of the Internal combustion Engine. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). ISBN 978-0-7680-0391-8.
  • scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/OttoCycle.html
  • Cengel, Yunus A; Michael A Boles; Yaling He (2009). Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach. N.p. The McGraw Hill Companies. ISBN 978-7-121-08478-2.
  • Benson, Tom (11 July 2008). "4 Stroke Internal Combustion Engine". p. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
[edit]
  • U.S. patent 194,047
  • Four stroke engine animation
  • Detailed Engine Animations[usurped]
  • How Car Engines Work
  • Animated Engines, four stroke, another explanation of the four-stroke engine.
  • CDX eTextbook, some videos of car components in action.
  • New 4 stroke

 

2016 Mazda MX-5
1931 Ford Model A roadster

A roadster (also spider, spyder) is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character.[1][2] Initially an American term for a two-seat car with no weather protection, its usage has spread internationally and has evolved to include two-seat convertibles.

The roadster was also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500, in the 1950s and 1960s. This type of racing car was superseded by rear-mid-engine cars.

Etymology

[edit]
Early roadster competing for the Vanderbilt Cup

The term "roadster" originates in the United States, where it was used in the 19th century to describe a horse suitable for travelling.[3][4] By the end of the century, the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles.[5] In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: "an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck."[6] Since it has a single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car.[4][7]: 258  Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard.[7]: 257 

In the United Kingdom, historically, the preferred terms were "open two-seater" and "two-seat tourer".[8][9] Since the 1950s, the term "roadster" has also been increasingly used in the United Kingdom. It is noted that the optional 4-seat variant of the Morgan Roadster would not be technically considered a roadster.[citation needed]

The term "spider" or "spyder," sometimes used in names for convertible models, is said to come from before the automobile era. Some 19th-century lightweight horse-drawn phaetons had a small body and large wooden wheels with thin spokes; they were nicknamed "spiders" because of their appearance; the nickname was transferred to sports cars, although they did not look similar.[10]

In 1962, Chevrolet introduced the Monza Spyder, a turbocharged version of its Corvair compact, available as a convertible or coupe. Although not a true 2 passenger vehicle, it featured upgraded suspension and other equipment to classify it as a "sporty car."

History

[edit]

Auto racing began with the first earnest contests in 1894 in Europe, and in 1895 in the United States. Some of the earliest race cars were purpose-built or stripped for the greatest speed, with minimal or no bodywork at all, leading to a body style aptly named 'speedster'. The cut-down speedster body-style really took form in the 1900s. After removing most of the body (and fenders), an empty platform on the ladder-frame chassis was mounted with one or two seats, a gas tank, and spare tyres.[11]

American manufacturers Mercer and Stutz started offering ready-made racing speedsters, intentionally built to be driven to race(-track), raced, and driven back by their owner – essentially the first track day cars.[11]

The immediate predecessor to the roadster was the runabout, a body style with a single row of seats and no doors, windshield, or other weather protection. Another predecessor was the touring car, similar in body style to the modern roadster except for its multiple rows of seats. By the 1920s roadsters were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains.[4]

Roadster bodies were offered on automobiles of all sizes and classes, from mass-produced cars like the Ford Model T and the Austin 7 to extremely expensive cars like the Cadillac V-16, the Duesenberg Model J and Bugatti Royale.

By the 1970s "roadster" could be applied to any two-seater car of sporting appearance or character.[12] In response to market demand they were manufactured as well-equipped as convertibles[13] with side windows that retracted into the doors. Popular models through the 1960s and 1970s were the Alfa Romeo Spider, MGB and Triumph TR4.

The highest selling roadster is the Mazda MX-5, which was introduced in 1989.[14][15][16] The early style of roadster with minimal weather protection is still in production by several low-volume manufacturers and fabricators, including the windowless Morgan Roadster, the doorless Caterham 7 and the bodyless Ariel Atom.

IndyCar roadster layout

[edit]
1957 Kurtis Indy roadster

The term roadster was used to describe a style of racing cars competing in the AAA/USAC Championship Cars series (the IndyCar equivalents of the time) from 1952 to 1969. The roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks.[17]

One story of why this type of racing car is referred to as a "roadster" is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500. They had it covered in a corner of their shop. If they were asked about their car they would try and obscure its importance by saying that it was just their (hot rod) "roadster". After the Indianapolis racer was made public, the "roadster" name was still attached to it.[citation needed]

Frank Kurtis built the first roadster to race and entered it in the 1952 Indianapolis 500. It was driven by Bill Vukovich who led for most of the race until a steering failure eliminated him. The Howard Keck owned team with Vukovich driving went on to win the 1953 and 1954 contests with the same car. Bob Sweikert won the 1955 500 in a Kurtis after Vukovich was killed while leading. A. J. Watson,[18] George Salih and Quinn Epperly were other notable roadster constructors. Watson-built roadsters won in 1956, 1959 – 1964 though the 1961 and 1963 winners were actually close copies built from Watson designs. The 1957 and 1958 winner was the same car built by Salih with help by Epperly built with a unique placement of the engine in a 'lay down' mounting so the cylinders were nearly horizontal instead of vertical as traditional design dictated.[19] This gave a slightly lower center of mass and a lower profile.

Roadsters continued to race until the late 1960s, although they became increasingly uncompetitive against the new rear-engined racing cars. The last roadster to complete the full race distance was in 1965, when Gordon Johncock finished fifth in the Wienberger Homes Watson car. The last roadster to make the race was built and driven by Jim Hurtubise in the 1968 race and dropped out early.[20]

Some pavement midget roadsters were built and raced into the early 1970s but never were dominant.[21]

See also

[edit]
  • Barchetta, a related two-seater body style designed primarily for racing
  • Convertible, the general term to describe vehicles with retractable roofs and retractable side windows
  • Roadster utility
  • Tonneau cover, a protective cover for the seats in an open car

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Pollard, Elaine, ed. (1994). "R". The Oxford Paperback Dictionary (Fourth ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 692. ISBN 0-19-280012-4. roadster noun an open car without rear seats.
  2. ^ Georgano, G. N., ed. (1971). "Glossary". Encyclopedia of American Automobiles. New York, NY USA: E. P. Dutton. pp. 215–217. ISBN 0-525-097929. LCCN 79147885. Roadster. A two-passenger open car of sporting appearance.
  3. ^ Webster, Noah; Goodrich, Chauncey A.; Porter, Noah (1861). "Roadster". An American Dictionary of the English Language. Springfield, MA US: G. and C. Merriam. p. 959.
  4. ^ a b c Haajanen, Lennart W. (2003). Illustrated Dictionary of Automobile Body Styles. Illustrations by Bertil Nydén; foreword by Karl Ludvigsen. Jefferson, NC USA: McFarland. p. 113. ISBN 0-7864-1276-3. LCCN 2002014546.
  5. ^ Porter, Noah, ed. (1898). "Roadster". Webster's International Dictionary of the English Language. Springfield, MA US: G. and C. Merriam. p. 1246. LCCN 98001281.
  6. ^ Society of Automobile Engineers, Nomenclature Division (August 20, 1916). "What's What in Automobile Bodies Officially Determined" (pdf). The New York Times. New York, NY USA. Nomenclature Division, Society of Automobile Engineers. ISSN 0362-4331. OCLC 1645522. Retrieved 2012-05-31. Here it is, with other body types and distinctions, officially determined recently by the Nomenclature Division of the Society of Automobile Engineers:
  7. ^ a b Clough, Albert L. (1913). A dictionary of automobile terms. The Horseless Age Company. LCCN 13003001. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
  8. ^ Culshaw, David; Horrobin, Peter (2013) [1974]. "Appendix 5 - Coachwork styles". The complete catalogue of British Cars 1895 - 1975 (e-book ed.). Poundbury, Dorchester, UK: Veloce Publishing. pp. 480–484. ISBN 978-1-845845-83-4.
  9. ^ "The Used Car Problem". Garage Organization and Management. Taylor & Francis. pp. 259–260. Retrieved 2012-10-26. (for the purposes of this British publication) 'In order to avoid confusion, however, the universally understood terms "Tourer", "Coupé", "Saloon", "Limousine", etc., have been adopted, adding the American term 'Roadster' as the two-seater edition of the tourer.'
  10. ^ Silvestro, Brian (14 May 2018). "Here's Why Convertibles Are Called Spiders". Road & Track.
  11. ^ a b The Cutdown Speedster — ClassicSpeedsters.com
  12. ^ Georgano 1971, p. 216.
  13. ^ Culshaw & Horrobin 2013, p. 482.
  14. ^ "Mazda Produces 900,000th MX-5, Recognized as World's Best-Selling Sports Car". www.motortrend.com. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  15. ^ "History of the Mazda MX-5 - picture special". www.autocar.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  16. ^ "25 Snapshots of the Mazda Miata Through History". www.cheatsheet.com. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  17. ^ "The 10 greatest Indy roadsters in history". www.macsmotorcitygarage.com. 18 February 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
  18. ^ "(USAC) Championship Indy Car Roadster". www.ewarbirds.org. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
  19. ^ "Brickyard Classic: 1958 Indy 500 – The Salih and Epperly "Laydown" Roadsters". www.curbsideclassic.com. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
  20. ^ "Robin Miller". www.racer.com. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
  21. ^ "The Don Edmunds Fully Independent Suspended Roadster Midget". www.donedmunds.com. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
[edit]
  • Media related to Roadsters at Wikimedia Commons

 

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